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BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR.* 


A  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOL^U- 
TION,  Vol.  I.,  1789-91;  Vol.  II.,  1791-93 
(New  York;  Charles  Scribner's  Sons). 

THE  PRINCIPAL  SPEECHES  OF  TAE 
STATESMEN  AND  ORATORS  OF  THE 
FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  1789-1795.  Eai- 
ted  with  Introduction,  Notes  and  Indices. 
2  Vols.  (Oxford :  Clarendon  Press ;  New 
York;  The  Macmillan  Company). 

EUROPEAN  HISTORY,  1789-1815  (Periods 
of  European  History  Series ;  New  York  :  The 
Macmillan  Company). 

HISTORY  OF  PORTUGAL  (Story  of  the  Na- 
tions Series;  New  York:  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons). 

ALBUQUERQUE  AND  THE  EARLY  POR- 
TUGUESE SETTLEMENTS  IN  INDIA 
( Rulers  of  India  Series.  Oxford  :  Clarendon 
Press ;  New  York  :  The  Macmillan  Company). 


SYLLABUS 


OF   A 


Course  of  Eighty-Seven  Lectures 


ON 


Modern  European  History 

(1600- I 890) 


BY 


H.   MORSE  STEPHENS 

Professor  of  Modern  European  History  in  Cornell  University 


NEW  YORK 

THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1903 


Si 


Copyright,  1899 
By  H.  Morse  Stephens 


Set  up,  electrotyped  and  printed  October,  1899 
Reprinted  August,  1903 


•     •  • 

•  •    •  • 

•  •  •  »  •' 


'•  • 


Press  OF 

fHE  New  era  Printing  Company. 

Lancaster,  Pa. 


PREFACE. 

This  volume  is  the  second,  revised  and  enlarged  edition,  of  a  syllabus 
of  lectures  on  modern  European  history,  which  has  been  used  in  Cor- 
nell University  during  the  past  five  years.  It  is  published  in  book 
form  at  the  request  of  former  pupils  and  of  other  teachers  of  history  in 
colleges  and  universities. 

The  problem  of  teaching  history  is  complicated  with  regard  to  modem 
European  history  by  certain  special  considerations.  Whatever  may  be 
said  for  or  against  the  lecture  method  as  opposed  to  the  holding  of  reci- 
tations on  a  text-book,  either  with  classes  of  young  students  or  in  such 
subjects  as  English  or  American  history,  in  which  the  subject-matter  is 
more  easily  made  intelligible,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  expediency 
of  the  lecture  method  in  teaching  modern  European  history  to  classes 
in  colleges  and  universities.  The  complexity  of  the  subject,  the  im- 
possibility, arising  from  this  very  complexity,  of  providing  an  adequate 
text-book,  the  strangeness  of  the  proper  names,  and  the  confusion  of 
the  historical  perspective,  owing  to  the  absence  of  any  particular  cen- 
tralizing institution  or  motive,  contribute  to  make  teaching  through 
lectures  the  accepted  method  of  instruction  in  modem  European  history. 
The  best  that  can  be  done  is,  in  each  successive  lecture,  to  fix  the  at- 
tention of  the  class  upon  some  of  the  changing  phases  of  the  subject, 
and  to  Indicate  where  and  how  fuller  information  can  be  obtained. 

This  may  be  done  by  lecturing  upon  topics  already  studied  by  the 
class  in  an  approved  text-book,  which  is  also  brought  into  the  lec- 
ture room,  but  there  are  certain  special  advantages  in  the  use  of  a  sylla- 
bus. The  practical  assistance  in  the. taking  of  notes  may  be  counted  as 
the  chief  of  these  advantages.  It  is  hardly  practicable  for  listeners  to  a 
lecture  to  use  the  actual  pages  of  the  text-book  as  a  guide  in  taking 
notes.  There  is  an  inevitable  difficulty  in  apprehending  and  inserting 
the  additional  matter  introduced  by  the  lecturer  in  his  treatment  of  the 
subject.  The  literary  form  of  the  text-book  and  the  diffusion  of  matter 
over  a  number  of  pages  also  distract  attention  from  the  words  of  the 
lecturer.    There  is  next  to  be  noted  the  question  of  dates.     Unless  the 

iii 

227428 


iv  Preface. 

more  important  dates  to  be  given  in  the  lecture  are  conspicuously  writ- 
ten upon  the  blackboard  or  previously  extracted  from  the  pages  of  the 
text-book,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  members  of  the  class  to  get 
them  correctly,  however  often  they  may  be  repeated.  Still  more  diffi- 
cult is  it  to  take  down  correctly  in  notes  proper  names  of  unusual  diffi- 
culty in  foreign  languages.  The  pronunciation  seldom  indicates  the 
right  spelling,  and  when  in  the  course  of  a  lecture  French,  German, 
Italian,  Polish  and  Russian  proper  names  all  have  to  be  mentioned,  it 
is  too  much  to  expect  that  they  can  be  correctly  heard  or  rendered. 

A  syllabus  containing  the  skeleton  of  a  lecture,  and  giving  the  bare 
facts  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  treated,  with  the  dates  and 
proper  names  to  be  mentioned,  is  of  positive  value  before,  during,  and 
after  the  lecture  hour.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  possible  for  the  students, 
by  looking  through  the  syllabus  of  the  lecture  they  are  about  to  attend, 
to  note  the  arrangement  of  the  subject  and  to  get  a  general  idea  of  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  handled.  During  the  lecture  hour,  they 
have  before  them  the  skeleton  of  the  facts  which  it  is  the  teacher's  busi- 
ness to  develop  and  illustrate.  They  can  take  their  notes  either  upon 
pages  interleaved  in  the  syllabus  itself,  or  in  a  note-book  with  references 
to  the  corresponding  pages  and  paragraphs.  They  are  not  distracted 
by  the  effort  to  catch  dates  correctly,  or  to  spell  unfamiliar  words  in 
foreign  languages.  After  the  lecture  it  is  possible  to  review  their 
knowledge  of  the  subject  with  the  certainty  that  they  have  correctly 
before  them  all  the  main  facts,  which  have  been  narrated  and  made  the 
subject  of  comment. 

It  is  not,  of  course,  to  be  asserted  that  the  use  of  a  syllabus  necessa- 
rily dispenses  with  the  use  of  a  text-book.  On  the  contrary,  it  presup- 
poses either  the  use  of  a  textbook  or  a  considerable  amount  of  supple- 
mentary reading.  It  is  advisable  for  the  lecturer,  when  entering  upon 
a  new  topic  to  review  briefly  the  secondary  and  primary  authorities  deal- 
ing with  it,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  bibliographies  affixed  to  each 
lecture  in  the  present  Syllabus  may  be  of  use  in  this  respect.  Every 
teacher  of  history  has  his  own  preferences  with  regard  to  text-books, 
and  some  may  choose,  like  the  compiler  of  this  Syllabus,  to  refer  his 
students  directly  to  brief  secondary  authorities  rather  than  to  any  one 
particular  text-book.     It  need  hardly  be  added  that  during  the  lecture 


Preface.  v 

hour  the  syllabus  should  always  be  supplemented  by  a  good  historical 
atlas,  such  as  Putzger's  Historischer  Schul-Atlas,  and  that  large  wall 
maps,  such  as  MacCoun's,  are  indispensable  for  purposes  of  illustration. 
It  is  always  well  to  prefix  to  a  course  of  lectures  on  modern  European 
history  a  general  sketch  of  the  historical  geography  of  Europe. 

Some  points  with  regard  to  the  Syllabus  now  published  need  special 
explanation. 

First,  the  number  of  lectures  has  been  decided  by  the  consideration 
that  eighty-seven  lectures  allow  for  three  lectures  a  week  for  twenty- 
nine  weeks,  which  is  as  much  time  as  can  be  given  during  the  college 
year  to  a  single  introductory  course  in  modern  European  history. 
Where  a  greater  number  of  lectures  can  be  given  or  a  longer  period 
than  one  year  it  is  possible  to  devote  more  than  an  hour  to  a  single  lec- 
ture topic.  Where  the  number  of  lectures  proves  too  great,  the  difficulty 
may  be  met  by  beginning  the  course  at  some  date  later  than  1600,  such 
as  1648  or  1 7 15,  or  by  stopping  at  some  earlier  date,  such  as  18 15  or 
1848.  A  course  of  lectures  may  also  be  given  upon  any  one  of  the 
three  centuries.  Differences  of  opinion  with  regard  to  proportion  and 
to  perspective  in  modern  European  history  necessarily  exist.  The  ar- 
rangement adopted  would  need  too  long  a  defense  to  be  entered  upon 
in  a  brief  preface,  but  it  may  be  stated  that  it  has  stood  the  test  of  five 
years'  experience.  Other  teachers  might  prefer  to  begin  earlier  or  later, 
or  might  prefer  to  devote  more  time  to  the  period  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion and  of  Napoleon,  but  the  conditions  in  Cornell  University  make  it 
expedient  to  begin  this  course  with  the  Seventeenth  Century  ;  while  the 
compiler  gives,  in  alternate  years,  special  advanced  courses  on  the  pe- 
riod of  the  French  Revolution  and  on  the  Napoleonic  Era.  The  sylla- 
buses of  certain  lectures,  as  for  instance  those  upon  the  War  of  the  Aus- 
trian Succession  and  upon  the  Seven  Years'  War,  are  excessively  long, 
and  need  more  than  one  hour's  discourse,  but  the  advantage  of  compre- 
hending each  topic  as  a  whole  has  seemed  to  outweigh  the  disadvantage 
of  the  exceeding  length  of  an  occasional  syllabus.  It  will  be  noted  that 
the  length  of  the  syllabuses  increases  as  they  progress ;  this  is  partly 
due  to  the  greater  complexity  of  the  later  period,  owing  to  the  larger 
number  of  important  political  factors,  and  partly  due  to  the  fact  that 
students  as  they  get  accustomed  to  the  subject  and  to  the  use  of  the 


vi  Preface. 

Syllabus  can  handle  a  greater  quantity  of  material.  A  knowledge  of 
English  and  American  history  is  presupposed  and  therefore  events  in 
the  internal  history  of  England  and  the  United  States  are  not  touched 
upon. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  side  of  modern  European  history  treated 
in  this  Syllabus  is  the  political.  The  primary  object  is  the  study  of  the 
international  relations  of  the  different  states  of  Europe  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Seventeenth  Century  to  the  present  time.  The  internal  de- 
velopment of  each  state  is  only  touched  upon  or  summarized  at  intervals, 
as  when  a  new  principle  of  national  government  comes  into  existence 
and  works  its  way  through  Europe,  such  as  that  expressed  in  the  sys- 
tem and  ideas  of  the  monarchy  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  of  the  enlightened 
despotism,  and  in  the  movement  for  popular  government  which  fol- 
lowed the  French  Revolution.  No  attempt  is  made  in  these  lectures  to 
deal  with  the  history  of  European  civilization  or  "  Kulturgeschichte," 
although  political  history,  when  adequately  treated,  affords  many 
opportunities  for  dwelling  upon  the  general  history  of  human  pro- 
gress. It  has  been  found  of  advantage,  however,  to  pause  occasion- 
ally in  the  political  narrative,  in  order  to  touch  in  the  briefest  possible 
manner  upon  the  history  of  literature,  philosophy,  art  and  science. 
Six  lectures  in  three  groups  are  interpolated  upon  these  subjects  at  ap- 
propriate dates.  The  syllabuses  of  these  six  lectures  are  on  a  different 
plan  from  those  on  political  history,  and  are  intended  to  bring  out  the 
great  contemporary  movements  of  thought  and  art,  through  the  na'mes 
of  the  leading  masters,  rather  than  to  attempt  an  exhaustive  treatment. 
It  is  important  to  know  in  what  period  of  European  political  history 
Moliere  wrote,  or  Rembrandt  painted,  or  Beethoven  composed  his  sym- 
phonies, even  if  it  is  not  possible  to  dwell  upon  their  achievements  in 
their  own  special  lines  of  work. 

Since  one  of  the  chief  uses  of  a  syllabus  of  lectures  on  modern  Euro- 
pean history  is  to  keep  before  the  students'  eyes  the  dates  of  important 
facts,  not  so  much  to  impress  them  upon  the  memory  as  to  make  clear 
the  chronological  sequence  of  events,  the  greatest  care  has  been  used  to 
give  correct  dates  ;  but  it  is  inevitable  that  in  such  a  mass  of  dates  as  is 
contained  in  this  Syllabus,  mistakes  must  have  been  committed,  or 
passed  over  in  the  process  of  printing.    In  every  case  the  Gregorian  date 


Preface,  vii 

is  given  and  this  causes  an  apparent  discrepancy  with  the  dates  given 
in  many  primary  and  secondary  authorities.  It  is  devoutly  to  be 
wished  that  modern  historians  would  always  convert  dates  in  the  his- 
tory of  Protestant  countries,  until  they  adopted  the  "new  style",  and 
of  Russia  and  other  countries  under  the  Greek  Church,  into  the  Gre- 
gorian dates.  It  may  be  noted  here  that,  although  the  Gregorian  cal- 
endar was  accepted  in  all  Roman  Catholic  countries  a^id  in  the  provinces 
of  Holland  and  Zealand  by  1587,  it  was  not  adopted  in  the  Protes- 
tant states  of  the  Empire,  the  remainder  of  the  Protestant  Netherlands, 
and  Denmark  until  1700,  in  the  Protestant  cantons  of  Switzerland  until 
1 701,  in  Great  Britain  until  1752,  and  in  Sweden  until  1753,  and  that 
it  has  not  yet  been  adopted  in  Russia,  Greece  and  the  Balkan  States. 
This  Syllabus  contains  not  only  a  mass  of  dates,  but  also,  as  has  been 
already  explained,  a  mass  of  proper  names,  and  a  few  words  must  be 
said  as  to  the  system  of  spelling  adopted.  With  regard  to  the  names 
of  individuals,  the  Anglicized  forms  of  Christian  names  have  been  used 
wherever  possible.  Thus,  Charles,  Henry  and  John  have  been  used  in 
the  place  of  their  French,  German,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
Swedish  and  Danish  equivalents.  An  apparent  exception  is  made  in 
case  of  Louis,  which  is  now  so  far  accepted  in  English  as  to  have  super- 
seded the  older  spelling  of  Lewis.  With  regard  to  surnames,  the  spell- 
ing of  the  country  of  origin  has  been  adopted,  except  in  such  cases  as 
that  of  Mazarin,  in  which  it  would  be  pedantic  to  continue  the  original 
spelling  of  Mazarini.  A  far  greater  problem  is  presented  by  the  spell- 
ing of  names  in  Russian  and  other  Slavonic  languages.  It  has  been 
thought  better  to  adopt  the  Anglicized  forms  of  such  Christian  names 
as  Peter,  Alexander  and  Nicholas ;  but  Ivan,  Feodor  and  Vasili,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  best  modern  usage,  have  been  retained  in  spite  of  the 
temptation  to  change  them  into  John,  Theodore  and  Basil.  Slavonic 
surnames  have  been  transliterated  directly  into  English  upon  the  prin- 
ciples already  adopted  in  the  author's  Europe,  lySg-iSi^,  and  more 
fully  explained  in  Mr.  J.  B.  Landfield's  article  in  the  American  Histor- 
ical Review,  vol.  2,  pp.  766-768.  This  is  the  only  rational  method  of 
spelling  Slavonic  proper  names,  since  neither  the  French  nor  the 
German  transliterations  indicate  the  correct  pronunciation  in  English. 
Muhammadan  names  are  spelled  according  to  the  Hunterian  standard, 
which  has  been  adopted  by  the  British  Government  of  India. 


viii  Preface, 

With  regard  to  the  spelling  of  names  of  places,  the  rule  adopted  has 
been  to  use  the  English  spelling  wherever  an  English  spelling  has  been 
established.  No  one  will  contest  the  correctness  of  using  Florence, 
Lyons  and  Vienna  for  Firenze,  Lyon  and  Wien,  nor  the  adoption  of  an 
English  usage  wherever  it  can  be  found,  as  in  the  case  of  Strasburg, 
Basle  and  Ratisbon.  Where  the  name  of  the  place  has  both  a  French 
and  a  German  form,  as  in  the  Rhenish  provinces,  it  has  been  thought 
better  to  retain  the  French  form  of  spelling,  since  Cologne  for  Koln, 
Treves  for  Trier,  Mayence  for  Mainz,  Munich  for  Miinchen,  Nimeguen 
for  Nymwegen,  and  some  others  are  not  only  the  French  forms,  but  have 
also  been  practically  adopted  into  English.  It  would  be  absurd  to  speak 
of  the  Treaty  of  Aachen,  when  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  is  the 
recognized  designation  in  every  English  document  and  book.  For  all 
places  of  minor  importance,  except  Blenheim,  the  local  spelling  has 
been  retained.  A  new  departure  has  been  made  in  rejecting  the  forms 
Roumania  and  Rumania,  which  are  based  upon  French  and  German 
spellings,  and  using  the  correct  form  Romania. 

The  appended  tables  of  rulers  and  ministers  have  been  found  of  prac- 
tical value  in  teaching,  by  the  opportunity  afforded  of  seeing  at  a  glance 
the  names  of  contemporary  rulers.  The  number  of  genealogical  appen- 
dices might  have  been  greatly  increased,  but  the  three  given  explain  the 
three  most  confusing  genealogical  puzzles  of  modern  European  history. 

It  is  most  essential,  if  the  study  of  modern  European  history  is  to  be 
of  greater  value  than  to  provide  a  mere  skeleton  knowledge,  that  every 
student  should  be  required  during  his  undergraduate  course  to  work 
out  particular  problems  for  himself  and  to  familiarize  himself  with  some 
field  of  historical  literature.  It  has  been  the  custom  in  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, during  the  past  five  years,  to  demand  each  term  of  every  student 
an  essay,  which  shall  not  be  a  mere  paraphrase  of  hastily  read  books, 
but  an  exercise  in  using  historical  materials.  Out  of  the  need  for  pro- 
viding authorities  for  these  essay  subjects  arose  the  compilation  of  the 
bibliographies  subjoined  to  the  syllabus  of  each  lecture.  These  bibli- 
ographies do  not  pretend  to  be  complete,  and  they  necessarily  show,  by 
their  greater  fullness  on  some  subjects  than  on  others,  the  bias  of  the 
compiler's  own  studies.  An  honest  attempt  has  been  made,  however, 
to  give  the  names  of  books  generally  recognized  as  secondary  authori- 


Preface.  ix 

ties,  with  a  list  of  the  chief  primary  authorities,  and  occasionally  refer- 
ence is  made  to  some  small  book  in  English  for  a  brief  summary.  Most  of 
these  bibliographies  mention  only  books,  which  should  be  in  every  good 
college  library,  and  it  is  hoped  that  they  may  be  serviceable  on  this 
account  to  teachers  of  history,  who  desire  to  know  to  what  books  to 
refer  their  students.  Much  assistance  has  been  derived  in  revising  the 
bibliographies  for  the  second  edition  of  this  Syllabus  from  the  excellent 
bibliographies  contained  in  Lavisse  and  'R.o.mhdiudi's  Histoire  generale. 
A  list  of  some  of  the  most  useful  historical  bibliographies,  collections 
of  primary  authorities,  general  histories,  and  other  works  of  a  general 
character,  is  appended  to  this  preface. 

It  remains  to  be  said  that  the  first  edition  of  this  Syllabus  has  been 
used  for  the  past  five  years  in  Cornell  University  with  a  class  consisting 
chiefly  of  juniors,  who  have  already  had  courses  in  Mediaeval  and  Eng- 
lish history,  and  that  it  has  been  found  to  give  a  fair  basis  on  which  to 
found  more  detailed  courses  for  seniors,  as  well  as  to  afford  some  pre- 
liminary training,  both  in  historical  perspective  and  in  the  use  of  his- 
torical materials.  The  thanks  of  the  compiler  are  especially  due,  and 
are  hereby  given,  to  Mr.  G.  M.  Butcher,  A.B.,  of  Cornell  University,  to 
whose  painstaking  care  this  revised  edition  owes  its  superior  accuracy 
over  its  predecessor. 

H.  MORSE  STEPHENS. 
CoRNEi^i,  University, 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 
July,  1899. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


General  Bibliography xv 

LECTURES. 

1.  Introductory  :  Europe  in  1600, i 

2.  The  Policy  of  Henry  IV.  of  France, 2 

3.  The  Thirty  Years'   War  :    To  the  Death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and 

of  Wallenstein, 4 

4.  The  Policy  of  Richelieu,      7 

5.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  :  From  1634  to  1648, 9 

6.  The  Treaties  of  Westphalia, 11 

7.  The  Fronde,  and  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees, 14 

8.  Europe  in  the  Middle  of  the  17th  Century :  i.  France, 17 

9.  Europe  in  the  Middle  of  the   17th  Century  :  2.  The  Empire,  the 

House  of  Austria,  and  the  German  Princes,            19 

10.  Europe  in  the  Middle  of  the  17th  Century  :  3.  The  Netherlands,  .  22 

11.  Europe  in  the  Middle  of  the  17th  Century  ;  4.  Sweden  and  Den- 

mark,      25 

12.  Europe  in  the  Middle  of  the  17th  Century  :  5.  Russia  and  Poland,  28 

13.  Europe  in  the. Middle  of  the  17th  Century  :  6.  The  Ottoman  Turks,  30 

14.  Europe  in  the  Middle  of  the  17th  Century  :  7.  Italy, 33 

15.  Europe  in  the  Middle  of  the  17th  Century  :  8.  Spain  and  Portugal,  36 

16.  France  under  Louis  XIV.  and  Colbert :  To  the  Revocation  of  the 

Edict  of  Nantes,  1685, 38 

17.  The  Foreign  Policy  of  Louis  XIV. :  To  the  Treaties  of  Nimeguen, 

1678, 41 

18.  Frederick  William,  the  Great  Elector, 45 

19.  The  Foreign  Policy  of  Louis  XIV.  :  To  the  Treaties  of  Ryswick, 

1697 47 

20.  The  Siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Tm-ks,  1683  :  Poland  under  John  So- 

bieski, 51 

21.  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great, 54 

22.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 56 

23.  The  Spanish  Succession, 59 

24.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  1701-14, 61 

25.  The  Treaties  of  Utrecht, 65 

26.  Germany  to  1715, 67 


xii  Table  of  Contents. 

27.  The  Southern  Countries  of  Europe  to  17 15, 73 

28.  The  Papacy  in  the  17th  Century  :  The  Jesuits  and  the  Jansenists,  .  76 

29.  The  Last  Years  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV., 79 

30.  Literature  and  Philosophy  in  the  17th  Century, 82 

31.  Art  and  Science  in  the  17th  Century, 84 

32.  The  Regency  of  Orleans,  and  the  Schemes  of  Alberoni, 86 

33.  The  End  of  the  Northern  War, 89 

34.  The  Policy  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI 91 

35.  The  War  of  the  Polish  Succession, 93 

36.  Frederick    William    I.    of    Prussia,   and    the    Tsaritsa    Anne    of 

Russia,      . .  96 

37.  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 99 

38.  The  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  the  Austro-French  Alliance,     .  105 

39.  The  Seven  Years'  War, 108 

40.  France  under  Louis  XV,, 112 

41.  The  Suppression  of  the  Jesuits, 115 

42.  The  First  Partition  of  Poland, 118 

-  43.  The  War  of  American  Independence,      122 

'  -^  "44.  France  under  Louis  XVI., 124 

45.  Prussia  under  Frederick  the  Great, 127 

46.  Russia  under  Catherine  the  Great, 131 

47.  The  Emperor  Joseph  II., 135 

48.  The  Northern  Countries  of  Europe  to  1789, 139 

49.  The  Southern  Countries  of  Europe  to  1789, 144 

50.  Germany  to  1789,        .  - 149 

51.  The  Enlightened  Despots, 153 

52.  Literature  and  Philosophy  in  the  i8th  Century,      156 

53.  Art  and  Science  in  the  i8th  Century, 158 

-  -     54.  The  French  Revolution, 162 

55.  The  Belgian  Revolution,  and  the  Policy  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.,  165 

56.  The  War  of  the  French  Republic  against  Europe 169 . 

57.  The  Second  and  Third  Partitions  of  Poland, 173 

58.  The  Treaties  of  Basle,      176 

59.  The  French  Directory,  and  the  First  Victories  of  Bonaparte,  .   .   .  179 

60.  The  Second  Coalition  against  the  French  Republic, 184 

61.  The  Treaties  of  Lundville  and  of  Amiens, 187 

62.  The  Consulate  in  France,  and  the  Re-constitution  of  Germany,     .  190 
^  63.  The  Power  of  Napoleon  at  its  Height, 193 

/        64.  Europe  during  the  Ascendency  of  Napoleon,     ..........  197 

65.  The  Overthrow  of  the  Power  of  Napoleon, .  201 

66.  The  Congress  of  Vienna, 205 

67.  The  Holy  Alliance .209 


Table  of  Contents.  xiii 

68.  The  Eastern  Question  :  The  Independence  of  Greece, 213 

69.  The  Revolution  of  1830  in  France, 217 

70.  The  Belgian  Insurrection 220 

71.  Insurrection  and  Civil  War  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 223 

72.  Europe  during  the  Reign  of  Louis  Philippe,      226 

73.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  France, 231 

74.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Italy, 235 

75.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Austria, 239 

76.  The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Germany, 244 

77.  Europe  after  the  Revolutions  of  1848 247 

78.  Literature  and  Philosophy  from  1789  to  1848, 251 

79.  Art  and  Science  from  1789  to  1848,           254 

80.  The  Eastern  Question  :  The  Crimean  War, 257 

81.  The  Union  of  Italy, 261 

82.  The  Overthrow  of  Austria, 265 

83.  The  Re-constitution  of  Germany  and  Austria, 269 

84.  The  Franco-German  War, 274 

85.  Europe  after  the  Franco-German  War  :  The  Dreikaiserbund,  .   .    .  278 

86.  The  Eastern  Question  :  The  Russo-Turkish  War,  1877-78,    ....  282 

87.  Europe  to  1890  :  The  Triple  Alliance, 286 


APPENDIX. 
I.    The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1600  to  1899  :  The  Great  Powers,  .   .    293 
II.     The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1600  to  1899  :  The  Lesser  Powers,     ,    300 

III.  The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1600  to  1899  :  Italy, 305 

IV.  The  Rulers  of  Europe  from  1600  to  1899  :  Germany, 310 

V.     The  Rulers  of  Independent  and  Semi-independent  States  formed 

from  the  Turkish  Empire  during  the  19th  Century, 315 

VI.     Genealogical  Table  representing  the  Relationship  of  the  Claim- 
ants to  the  Spanish  Succession  (1700),     317 

VII.    Genealogical  Table  representing  the  Succession  to  the  Russian 

Throne  in  the  i8th  Century, 318 

VIII.     Genealogical  Table  representing  the  Claimants  to  the  Austrian 

Succession  (1740)  and  the  Children  of  Maria  Theresa,     ....    319 


General  Bibliography. 

Bibliographies. 

Langlois  :  Manuel  de  bibliographie  historique. 
Monod  :  Bibliographic  de  Thistoire  de  France. 
Franklin  :   Les  sources  de  I'histoire  de  France. 

Dahlmann-Waitz  :  Quellenkunde  der  deutschen  Geschichte.    (ed.  Steindorff.) 
Pirenne  :   Bibliographic  de  Thistoire  de  Belgique. 

Historische  Gesellschaft  zu  Berlin:  Jahresberichte  der  Geschichtswissen- 
schaft.     (Since  1878.) 

Atlases. 
Putzger :  Historischer  Schul- Atlas. 

Poole  :  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.  (Clarendon  Press. — In  course  of 
publication. ) 

Schrader  :  Atlas  de  geographic  historique. 

Droysen  :  Allgemeiner  historischer  Hand-Atlas. 

Spruner-Menke :  Hand-Atlas  fiir  die  Geschichte  des  Mittelalters  und  der 
neueren  Zeit. 

Chronologies. 

Bond  :  Handy-Book  of  Rules  and  Tables  for  Verifying  Dates. 

Pioetz  :   Epitome  of  Universal  History,     (ed.  Tillinghast,  to  1883.) 

Hassall :   Handbook  of  European  History,  476-1871. 

Qhillany  :  Europaische  Chronik  von  1492  bis  Ende  April,  1877. 

L'art  de  verifier  les  dates  des  faits  historiques.     (To  1827. ) 

Belviglieri :  Tavole  sincrone  e  genealogiche  di  storia  italiana  dal  300  al  1870. 

Genealogies. 

Lorenz :  Genealogisches  Handbuch  der  europaischen  Staatengeschichte. 
Grote:  Stammtafeln. 

George :   Genealogical  Tables  illustrative  of  Modern  History. 
Almanach  de  Gotha.     (Since  1764. ) 

Historical  Dictionaries. 

Haydn  :   Dictionary  of  Dates. 

Harper's  Book  of  Facts.     (Ed.  Lezvis.    American  edition  of  Haydn.) 

Herbst :  Encyklopadie  der  neueren  Geschichte. 

Lalanne :  Dictionnaire  historique  de  la  France. 


xVi  General  Bibliography, 

Biographical  Dictionaries. 

Thomas  :    Universal  Pronouncing  Dictionary  of   Biography  and  Mythology 
(1886). 
GEttinger :   Moniteur  des  dates.     (1869,  with  supplements  to  1882.) 
Michaud  :   Biographic  universelle.     (1854-65.) 
Hoefer  :   Nouvelle  biographic  generale.     (1857-66.) 

Vapereau  :  Dictionnairc  universel  des  contemporains.     (Sixth  edition,  1892.) 
Stephen  and  Lee  :   Dictionary  of  National  Biography.     (1885— In  progress.) 
Liliencron  and  Wegele :  Allgemcine  deutsche  Biographic.    (1877— In  progress.) 
Wurzbach  :   Biographisches  Lexicon  des  Kaiserthums  CE)sterreich.     (1856-91.) 
Van  der  Aa :  Biographisch  Woordenboek  der  Nederlandcn.     (1852-78.) 

General  Histories. 

Hassall :  Periods  of  European  History.     (To  1815— final  volume  to  appear.) 
Lavisse  and  Rambaud  :  Histoire  generale  du  iv®  si^cle  £i  nos  jours.   (To  1871 — 
final  volume  to  appear.) 

Collections  of  Histories. 

(Putnams*):  The  Story  of  the  Nations. 
Oncken  :   Allgemeine  Geschichte  in  Einzeldarstellungen. 
Heeren,  Ukert,  Qiesebrecht  and  Lamprecht :  Geschichte  der  europaischen 
Staaten. 

General  Histories  of  Countries. 

riartin:  Histoire  de  France.     (To  1789.) 

Sismondi :   Histoire  des  Fran^ais.     (To  1789.) 

Michelet:   Histoire  de  France.     (To  1789.) 

Dareste:   Histoire  dc  France.     (To  1848.) 

Lafuente:   Historia  general  de  Espaiia.     (To  1789.) 

Canovas  del  Castillo  :  Historia  general  de  Espana  escrita  por  individuos  de 
numero  de  la  Real  Academia  de  la  Historia. 

Botta:   Storiad'Italia.     (To  1789.) 

Cantil :   Histoire  des  Italiens.     (Tr.  Lacombe,  to  1856.) 

Daru  :   Histoire  de  la  republique  de  Venise.     (To  1798.) 

Miiller,  Qloutz-Blozheim  and  Hettinger :  Histoire  de  la  confederation  Suisse ; 
traduite  de  I'allemaud  et  continuee  par  Monard  et  Vulliemin.    (To  1815.) 

Finlay  :   History  of  Greece.     (To  1864.)  , 

Hammer:   Histoire  dc  Tempire  ottoman.     (Tr.  Hellert,  to  1774-) 

Sayous  :   Histoire  g^n^rale  des  Hongrois.     (To  1815.) 

Xenopol :   Histoire  des  Roumains  dc  la  Dacic  Trajane.     (To  1859.) 

Rambaud:  History  of  Russia.     (Tr.  Za«^,  to  1891.) 


General  Bibliography,  xvil 

L6ger:   History  of  Austro-Hungary.     (Tr.  Hill,  to  1889.) 
Krones  :  Handbuch  der  Geschichtc  O^stcrreichs.     (To  1870.) 
Allen  :    Histoire  de  Danetnark.     (Tr.  Beauvois,  to  1866.) 

Blok  :  History  of  the  People  of  the  Netherlands.     (Tr.  Bierstadt  and  Putnam, 
In  progress. ) 
Juste:   Histoire  de  Belgique.     (To  1865.) 

Historical  Geographies. 
Freeman  :  Historical  Geography  of  Europe.     (To  1879.) 

Himly :  Histoire  de  la  formation  territoriale  des  ^tats  de  rEurope  centrale. 
(Second  Ed.,  to  1890.) 
Hertslet :   Map  of  Europe  by  Treaty,  1814-1891. 

Collections  of  Memoirs. 

Petitot  and  Monmerque:  Collection  complete  des  m^moires  relatifs  ^  I'his- 
toire  de  France  depuis  I'avenement  de  Henri  IV.  jusqu'a  la  paix  de  Paris,  conclue 
en  1763. 

Michaud  and  Poujoulat :  Nouvelle  collection  des  m^moires  pour  servir  i  This- 
toire  de  France  depuis  le  XIIP   siecle  jusqu'd  la  fin  du  XVIIP  si^cle. 

Collections  of  Treaties  and  Diplomatic  Correspondence. 

Dumont  and  Rousset  de  flissy :  Corps  universel  diplomatique  du  droit  des 
gens  coutenant  un  recueil  des  traitez.     (To  1737.) 

Wenck:  Codex  juris  gentium  recentissimi.     (1735-1772.) 

Martens:  Recueil  de  traites  etc.,  depuis  1761  jusqu'a  present.  (Continued  by 
others,  with  slight  changes  of  title,  to  the  present  day.) 

Martens:  Recueil  des  traites  et  conventions  conclus  par  la  Russie  avec  les 
puissances  etrang^res. 

Sorel :  Recueil  des  instructions  donndes  aux  ambassadeurs  et  ministres  de 
France  depuis  les  traitds  de  Westphalie  jusqu'a  la  Revolution  franjaise. 

National  Collections  of  Documents. 

France :   Collection  de  documents  in^dits  sur  I'histoire  de  France.    (Since  1835. ) 

Spain :  Coleccion  de  documentos  ineditos  para  la  historia  de  Espaiia.  (Since 
1842.) 

Netherlands  :  Werken  uitgegeven  door  het  Historisch  Genootschap,  gevestigd 
te  Utrecht.     (Since  1846.) 

Austro-Hungary  :  Fontes  Rerum  Austriacarum.  CGsterreichische  Geschichts- 
Quelleu.     (Since  1855.) 

Russia:  Russkoe  Istoricheskoe  Obshchestvo  :  Sbornik.     (Since  1867). 

Prussia:  Publicationen  aus  den  k.  preussischen  Staatsarchiven.     (Since  1878.) 


xviii  General  Bibliography, 

Publications  of  Academies. 

Academic  des  sciences  morales  et  politiques :  Memoires.     (Since  1798.) 
Comptes  rendus  des  seances  et  travaux.     (Since  1840.) 
Die  konigliche  bayerische  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  zu  Miinchen: 

Gelehrte  Anzeigen.     (1835-1860.)     Sitzungsberichte.     (Since  i860, ) 
Die    konigliche  preussische    Akademie   der  Wissenschaften  zu   Berlin: 

Bericht  iiber  die  zur  Bekanntmachung  geeigneten  Verhandlungen.  (1836-1855.) 
Monatsberichte.     (1856-1881.)     Sitzungsberichte.     (Since  1882.) 

Die  kaiserliche  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  (Vienna):  Sitzungsberichte. 
(Since  1848.)  Denkschriften.  (Since  1850.)  Archiv  fiir  Kunde  osterreichischer 
Geschichts-Quellen.  (1848-1865.)  Archiv  fiir  osterreichische  Geschichte.  (Since 
1865.) 

Koniglich  Sachsischen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften  zu  Leipzig: 
Berichte.     (Since  1849.)     Abhaudlungen.     (Since  1850.) 

Historical  Reviews. 

Historische  Zeitschrift.     (Since  1859.) 
Revue  des  questions  historiques.     (Since  1866.) 
Revue  historique.     (Since  1876.) 
English  Historical  Review.     (Since  1886.) 
American  Historical  Review.     (Since  1895.) 


LECTURES 


ON 


MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY. 


LECTURE  1, 


INTRODUCTORY: 
EUROPE  IN  1600. 

The  first  half  of  the  17th  century  was  marked  by  the  same  charac- 
teristics as  the  last  half  of  the  i6th,  but  traces  of  the  modern  European 
system,  which  existed  after  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  and  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, were  to  be  seen  in  the  policy  pursued  by  Henry  IV.  of  France 
and  Cardinal  Richelieu. 

The  period  covered  by  the  i6th  and  first  half  of  the  17th  century  was 
a  period  of  transition  from  the  ferment  caused  by  the  Reformation,  the 
discovery  of  the  New  World  and  of  the  direct  sea  route  to  Asia,  the 
invention  of  printing,  etc.,  to  the  more  settled  conditions  of  internal 
government  and  international  relations,  which  lasted  from  the  Treaties 
of  Westphalia  to  the  French  Revolution. 

The  characteristic  features  of  this  transition  period  were  the  Wars  of 
Religion. 

Causes  of  the  Wars  of  Religion  :  the  earnestness  imparted  by  the 
Reformation  supplemented  by  the  work  of  the  Counter- Reformation ; 
so  that  war  on  behalf  of  religion,  and  persecution  came  to  be  considered 
religious  duties  ;  religious  intolerance  among  earnest  men  matched  by 
the  unscrupulous  conduct  of  politicians. 

During  the  Wars  of  Religion  the  sense  of  National  Unity  began  to 
be  felt,  binding  peoples  by  their  countries  rather  than  by  their  faiths:  in 
this  way  the  Wars  of  Religion  helped  to  modify  the  results  of  feudalism. 


2       ^  ,    .,",'.";  ^     c   :Henfy  IV.  of  Fraiice. 

Different  effects  of  the  Wars  of  Religion  in  different  countries,  e.  g.^ 
(i)  in  the  Netherlands,  (2)  in  France,  (3)  in  Germany. 

Tendency  toward  strong  government  and  standing  armies  to  avert 
the  horrors  of  religious  and  civil  wars  ;  France  being  the  first  country 
to  obey  this  tendency  became,  during  the  first  half  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, the  most  important  nation  in  Kurope. 

Where  the  national  spirit  developed,  countries  became  strong  in  spite 
of  religious  internal  differences,  e.  g.^  France,  England,  the  United 
Provinces. 

Relative  position  of  the  powers  of  Europe  toward  each  other  in  1600. 

The  condition  of  Germany  :  unsatisfactory  settlement  made  of  the 
religious  question  by  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  ;  the  pretensions 
and  actual  strength  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire ;  the  electors,  and  the 
princes  of  the  Empire  ;  certainty  of  further  religious  war  in  Germany. 

The  Papacy  :  its  increased  spiritual  strength  after  the  Council  of 
Trent  (1545-1563),  due  to  the  Counter- Reformation  and  the  work  of  the 
Jesuits. 

In  the  year  1600,  although  religious  war  impended  in  German 3^  owin^ 
to  German  conditions,  it  was  practically  at  its  close  elsewhere,  for 
Henry  IV.  had  just  issued  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  Philip  II.  of  Spain  was 
just  dead,  and  Elizabeth  of  England  was  at  the  very  end  of  her  reign. 


LECTURE  2. 


THE  POLICY  OF  HENRY  IV.  OF  FRANCE. 

The  character  and  early  career  of  Henry  IV.  (b.  1553). 

His  part  in  the  Wars  of  Religion  in  France. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  III.  (1589),  Henry  of  Bourbon,  who  had 
been  King  of  Navarre  since  1572,  claimed  the  throne  of  France  as  next 
male  heir  ;  his  struggles  as  Huguenot  leader  against  the  Catholics. 

He  adopted  the  Catholic  religion  (1593),  and  thus  became  a  national 
king. 


Henry  IV,  of  France.  3 

* 

The  issue  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (13  April,  1598),  and  the  pacifica- 
tion of  the  Huguenots  :  terras  of  the  Edict. 

Conclusion  of  the  war  with  Philip  II.  of  Spain  by  the  Treaty  of  Ver- 
vins  (2  May,  1598):  terms  of  the  treaty. 

The  internal  policy  of  Henry  IV.  as  worked  out  by  the  Due  de  Sully 
(b.  1560,  d.  1641). 

L  His  absolutism  in  government;  justified  by  the  turbulence  and 
want  of  patriotism  of  the  nobles  :  execution  of  Biron  (31 
July,  1602). 
ii.  His  administrative  reforms. 

in.  His  judicial  reforms  :  seats  in  the  Parlements  made  hereditary. 
iv.  His  financial  reforms  :  the  new  taxation. 
V.  His  advancement  of  the  material  prosperity  of  his  people  : 

a.  by  encouraging  agriculture  :  Olivier  de  Serres. 

b.  by  undertaking  public  works. 

c.  by  establishing  manufactures. 

d.  hy  reviving  commerce. 

vi.  His  interest  in  trans- Atlantic  exploration  and  emigration: 
foundation  of  Annapolis  (1604),  of  Quebec  (1608). 

The  foreign  policy  of  Henry  IV.:  the  '*  Grand  Design":  the  ques- 
tion of  its  authenticity. 

Assassination  of  Henry  IV.  at  Paris  by  Francois  Ravaillac  (14  May, 
1610):  its  eJBFect  on  France  and  on  Europe. 

Authorities :  The  most  recent  small  book  in  English  on  the  life  of  Henry  IV. 
is  a  biography  by  Willert.  The  best  secondary  authorities  are  Poirson,  His- 
toire  du  regne  de  Henri  IV.,  4  vols.  ;  Guadet.  Henri  IV.  sa  vie  etses  Merits  ;  Per- 
rens,  Les  manages  espagnols  sous  le  regne  de  Henri  IV.  et  la  r^gence  de  Marie  de 
Medicis,  and  L'Eglise  et  I'Etat  en  France  sous  le  regne  de  Henri  IV.  et  la  r^geuce 
de  Marie  de  Medicis ;  Zeller,  Henri  IV.  et  Marie  de  Medicis ;  Lacombe,  Henri 
IV.  et  sa  politique  ;  Philippson,  Heinrich  IV.  und  Philipp  III.  ;  Anquez,  Henri 
IV.  et  I'AUemagne,  d'apres  les  m^moires  et  la  correspon dance  de  Jacques  Bon- 
gars;  Rotty  Henry  IV.,  les  Suisses  et  la  Haute-Italie;  Kertnaingant,  L*ambassade 
de  France  en  Angleterre  sous  Henri  IV. ;  Puyol,  Edm.  Richer :  dtude  sur  la  reno- 
vation du  gallicanisme  au  commencement  du  XVII.  ieme  siecle,  2  vols.;  Read, 
Henri  IV.  et  le  ministre  Daniel  Chamier ;  Henrard,  Henri  IV.  et  la  princesse  de 
Coudd  ;  and  Phet,  Henri  IV.  et  I'Eglise  ;  see  also  the  essays  on  •'  La  France  sous 
Henri  IV."  in  Hanoiaux^  Etudes  Historiques  sur  le  XVI«  et  le  XVIP  siecle,  and  on 


4  The  Thirty   Years'    War,  1618-34.. 

"Ravaillac  et  ses  complices"  in  Loiseleur,  Questions  historiques  du  XVII®.  siecle, 
as  well  as  Vol.  i,  chap.  6  of  I^es  Finances  fran9aises,  by  the  Baron  de  Nervo. 
Short  excerpts  from  the  ■primary  authorities  are  to  be  found  in  three  volumes 
in  the  series  edited  by  Zeller,  Henri  IV.  et  Sully,  Henri  IV.  et  Biron,  and  La  Fin 
de  Henri  IV.  The  chief  primary  authorities  are  the  various  collections  of  the 
letters  of  Henry  IV.,  including  the  Lettres  missives,  ed.  Berger  de  Xivrey  and 
Guadet,  9  vols.,  in  the  Documents  inedits,  the  Lettres  intimes,  a  selection  ed.  Dus- 
sieux^  and  the  Correspondance  avec  Maurice  le  Savant,  ed.  De  Rommel;  Benoity 
Histoire  de  I'Edit  de  Nantes,  5  vols.;  the  first  three  volumes  of  M.  Ritter,  Briefe 
und  Acten  zur  Geschiclj^e  des  dreissigjahrigen  Krieges;  the  Memoires  of  Villeroy; 
the  contemporary  histories  of  Mathieu,  Agrippa  d'Aubigni  and  De  Thou;  the 
M^moires-journaux  oi  U Estoile;  the  Chronologic  novenaire  and  Chronologic  sep- 
tenaire  oi  Raima  Cayet ;  the  Negociations  oijeannin;  the  Journal  of  Bassompie7're; 
and  above  all,  the  Economies  royales,  or  Memoires,  of  Sully ^  with  the  recent  criti- 
cisms by  Rfister  in  the  Revue  Historique,|lrols.  54,  55,  56. 


LECTURE  3. 


THE  THIRTY  YEARS'   WAR:    TO  THE  DEATH   OF  GUSTAVUS 
ADOIvPHUS   AND   OF  WALLENSTEIN. 

The  approach  of  renewed  religious  war  in  Germany  :  changes  in  Ger- 
man conditions  since  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  ;  political  effect  of 
the  Reformation  ;  secularisation  of  ecclesiastical  states. 

The  spread  of  Calvinism  :  the  Ecclesiastical  Reservation  ;  the  Coun- 
ter-Reformation. lUuw 

Fore  warnings  of  the  war :  (i)  the  case  of  the  Elector  of  Cologne 
(1584)  ;  (2)  the  case  of  the  city  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1589);  (3)  the  case 
of  the  town  of  Donauworth  (1607). 

Formation  of  the  Protestant  Union  (1608),  and  of  the  Cathoilc 
League  (1609). 

The  Emperor  and  his  political  position  in  Germany  :  the  three  lay- 
electors —  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the 
Elector  Palatine  ;  the  three  ecclesiastical  electors  —  the  Archbishops  of 
Mayence,  Cologne,  and  Treves  ;   the  Duke  of  Bavaria. 

The  Emperor  as  head  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  :  his  position  in 


The   Thirty    Years'    War,  1618-34,  5 

Bohemia,  in  Austria,  and  in  Hungary ;  the  Emperors  RudolpV  II. 
(1576-1612),  and  Matthias  (1612-1619). 

The  disputed  succession  to  Juliers-Cleves  (1609):  interference  of 
Henry  IV.  of  France  and  the  Dutch. 

The  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War:  the  "  throwing  from  the 
v^^indows"  at  Prague  (23  May,  161 8);  accession  of  Ferdinand  II.,  and 
election  of  Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine,  who  had  married  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  as  King  of  Bohemia  (1619);  the 
battle  of  the  White  Mountain  (8  Nov.,  i62o),^nd  occupation  of  the 
Rhenish  or  Lower  Palatinate  by  Spanish  troops  (Apr.,  162 1);  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria  made  an  Elector  (1623),  and  granted  the  Upper  Palat- 
inate ;  triumph  of  the  Catholic  League  ;  Tilly  (b.  1559),  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  League^  defeated  the  Margrave  of  Baden  at 
Wimpfen  (6  May,  1622),  and  Christian  of  Brunswick  at  Hochst  (20  July, 
1622)  and  at  Stadtlohn  (6  Aug.,  1623). 

Intervention  of  Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  in  aid  of  the  Protes- 
tants (1625) :  Wallenstein  (b.  1583),  in  command  of  the  Emperor's 
army,  defeated  Mansfeld  at  Dessau. (25  Apr.,  1626);  death  of  Christian 
of  Brunswick  (9  June);  Tilly  defeated  the  Danes  at  Lutter  (27  Aug.); 
death  of  Mansfeld  (29  Nov.);  the  siege  of  Stralsund  (1628);  Christian 
IV.  made  peace  at  Liibeck  (22  May,  1629). 

Height  of  the  Catholic  success  :  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  issued 
the  Edict  of  Restitution  (6  March,  1629);  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (1630);  dis- 
missal of  Wallenstein. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  induced  to  come  to  the  rescue 
of  Protestantism  :  his  conquest  of  Pomerania  (1630);  the  sack  of  Mag- 
deburg by  Tilly  (20  May,  1631  >;  the  Electors  of  Brandenburg  and 
Saxony  forced  to  join  Gustavus  Adolphus  ;  the  battle  of  Breitenfeld  or 
Leipzig  (17  Sept.,  1631);  the  policy  of  Gustavus;  his  march  to  the 
Rhine  ;  defeat  of  Tilly  at  the  Lech  (15  Apr.,  1632);  death  of  Tilly  (20 
Apr.);  the  conquest  of  Bavaria  and  the  capture  of  Munich  by  Gus- 
tavus ;  Wallenstein  recalled  ;  Gustavus  Adolphus  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Liitzen  (16  Nov.,  1632).  * 

The  character  of  Gustavus  Adolphus ;  his  military  genius ;  the 
Swedish  nation  and  army  ;  his  political  schemes  ;  the  startling  changes 
caused  by  his  intervention  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  by  his  death. 


6  The  Thirty   Years'    War^  i6i8-j^. 

Assassination  of  Wallenstein  (25  Feb.,  1634)  ;  his  character  and  po- 
litical aims. 

Knd  of  the  earnest  period  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Authorities  :  Of  small  books  in  Knglish,  Gardiner,  The  Thirty  Years'  War, 
and  Fletcher,  I^ife  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  may  be  recommended.  In  French, 
Charveriat,  Histoire  de  la  guerre  de  Trente  ans,  2  vols.,  is  readable,  and  in  Ger- 
man, Winter,  Geschichte  des  dreissigjahrigen  Krieges.  The  best  secondary 
histories  for  the  early  part  of  the  war  are,  Gindely,  Geschichte  des  dreissig- 
jahrigen Krieges,  5  vols.,  of  which  a  popular  and  abridged  edition  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Ten  Brook,  and  Klopp,  Der  dreissigjahrige  Krieg  bis  zum 
Tode  Gustav  Adolfs,  3  vols.;  Schiller,  Geschichte  des  dreissigjahrigen  Krieges,  is 
still  read  as  a  German  classic  :  among  more  special  books  should  be  noted  Huber, 
Geschichte  (Esterreichs,  vol.  v.;  Gindely,  Rudolf  II.  und  seine  Zeit  (1608-1612), 
2  vols.;  Stieve,  Der  Ursprung  des  dreissigjahrigen  Krieges  ;  Ritter,  Geschichte  def 
Deutschen  Union  (1598-1612) ;  Hurler,  Geschichte  Kaiser  Ferdinands  II.,  4  vols., 
being  vols.  viii.  to  xi.  of  his  Geschichte  Kaiser  Ferdinands  11.  und  seiner  Eltern  ; 
Markham,  The  Fighting  Veres  ;  Opel,  Der  Niedersachsich-Danische  Krieg  ;  Droy- 
sen,  Gustav  Adolf ;  Gfrorer,  Gustav  Adolf,  Konig  von  Schweden,  und  seine  Zeit,  3 
vols.;  Harte,  History  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  2  vols.;  Vincent  Chapman,  History 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  2  vols.;  Dodge,  Gustavus 
Adolphus ;  Biihring,  Venedig,  Gustav  Adolf  und  Rohan  ;K.  A.  Midler,  Kiirfurst 
Johann  Georg  der  Erste ;  Ranke,  Geschichte  Wallensteins  ;  Gindely,  Waldstein 
wahrend  seines  ersten  Generalats,  2  vols.;  Forster,  Wallenstein  als  Feldherr  und 
lyandesfiirst ;  Vonjanko,  Wallenstein  ;  Hurler,  Zur  Geschichte  Wallensteins,  and 
Wallensteins  vier  letzten  Ivcbensjahre  ;  Gddeke,  Wallensteins  Verhandlungen  mit 
den  Schweden  und  Sachsen  (1631-1634)  ;  Hildebrandt,  Wallenstein  und  seine 
Verbindungen  mit  den  Schweden  ;  Hallwich,  Wallenstein's  Ende,  and  Gestalten 
aus  Wallensteins  Lager ;  Klopp,  Tilly,  and  Villemiont,  Tilly,  and  Ernest  de  Mans- 
feldt.  Among  primary  authorities  consult  Abelin,  Theatrum  Europaeum,  2 
vols.,  and  Arma  Suecica,  4  vols.;  /.  L.  Gottfried,  Fortgesetze  historische  Chronick  ; 
Lotichius,  Rerum  Germanicarum  sub  Matthia,  Ferdinandis  II.  et  III.  imperatori- 
bus  gestarum  libri  55  ;  Khevenhiiller,  Annales  Ferdinandei,  12  vols ;  Brachelius, 
Historia  sui  temporis  ;  Riccius,  De  bellis  Germanicis  libri  x. ;  Gualdo  Priorato, 
Historia  delle  guerre  di  Ferdinando  II.,  e  Ferdinando  III.,  imperatori,  e  del  re  Fil- 
ippo  IV.  di  Spagna  contra  Gostava  Adolfo,  re  di  Svetia,  e  Luigi  XIII.,  re  di  Francia 
(1630-1640)  ;  Konung  Gustaf  II.  Adolfs  Skrifter,  ed.  Styffe;  Irmer,  Die  Verhand- 
lungen Schwedens  und  seiner  Verbiindeten  mit  Wallenstein  und  dem  Kaiser,  3 
vols. ;  Forster'' s  and  other  collections  of  Wallenstein' s  Letters ;  M.  Ritter,  Briefe 
und  Acten  zur  Geschichte  des  dreissigjahrigen  Krieges  in  den  Zeiten  des  vorwal- 
tenden  Einflusses  der  Wittelsbacher,  5  vols.,  and  Gardiner,  Letters  and  other  Doc- 
uments illustrating  the  relations  between  England  and  Germany  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (Camden  Society,  1865). 


Richelieu, 
LKCTURK  4. 


THE  POLICY  OF  RICHELIEU. 

The  government  of  France  from  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  (1610)  to  the 
ministry  of  Richelieu  (1624)  a  period  of  court  intrigues,  of  weakness  of 
the  central  authority,  and  of  vacillating  foreign  policy. 

The  Regency  of  Marie  de  Medicis  in  the  name  of  her  son,  Louis  XIII. 
(16 10-16 1 7):  her  favorites;  the  one  event  of  importance  the  Spanish 
marriages,  Louis  XIII.  marrying  Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip 
III.  of  Spain,  and  Philip,  the  heir  to  the  Spanish  throne,  marrying 
Elizabeth,  sister  of  Louis  XIII.  (16 12);  murder  of  Concini,  Marechal 
d'Ancre  (24  April,  16 17). 

The  States- General  held  in  16 14:  what  it  was,  what  it  might  have 
done,  and  how  it  failed. 

The  government  of  the  favorite,  the  Due  de  Luynes  (1617-1621):  the 
escape  of  Marie  de  Medicis  from  Blois  (1619);  the  struggle  between 
mother  and  son;  attack  commenced  on  the  political  power  of  the  Hu- 
guenots; capture  of  St.  Jean  d'Angel)^  (1621);  Peace  of  Montpellier 
(1623). 

Richelieu  (b.  5  Sept.,  1585;  Bishop  of  Lu^on,   16  Apr.,  1607;   Car- 
dinal,  5  Sept.,   1622)  appointed   chief  minister  of  France   (19  Apr., 
1624);  his  early  career;  his  character;  his  political  aims. 
Richelieu's  policy: 

/.  To  make  the  crown  of  France  all-powerful  by  overcoming  the 
nobility:  first  conspiracy  of  Gaston,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the 
King's  brother  (1626);  the  edict  against  duelling,  and  execu- 
tion of  Montmorency-Boutteville  (1627)  ;  the  "  Day  of 
Dupes"  (11  Nov.,  1630);  imprisonment  and  exile  of  Marie 
de  Medicis;  intrigues  of  the  exiles,  including  Gaston  of 
Orleans,  with  Lorraine  and  Spain;  invasion  of  Gaston  of 
Orleans;  execution  of  Montmorency  (30  Oct.,  1632);  part 
played  by  the  queen,  Anne  of  Austria;  her  relations  with 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham;  birth  of  the  Dauphin  (5  Sept., 
1638) ;  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq- Mars;  his  execution  (12  Sept., 
1642). 


8  Richelieu. 

iu  To  unite  the  force  of  France  by  destroying  the  political  power 
of  the  Huguenots:  the  rights  possessed  by  the  Huguenots 
under  the  Edict  of  Nantes;  their  unpatriotic  spirit  a  remnant 
of  the  ideas  of  the  i6th  century;  the  civil  war  of  1625-26; 
the  siege  of  La  Rochelle  (1627-28);  help  sent  to  the  Hugue- 
nots by  England;  the  surrender  of  La  Rochelle  (28  Oct., 
1628);  the  Peace  of  Alais  (^28  June,  1629),  granting  the 
Huguenots  religious  liberty,  but  destroying  their  political 
independence. 
in.  To  overthrow  the  power  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg:  Riche- 
lieu's adoption  of  part  of  the  ' '  Grand  Design' ' ;  his  endeavors 
to  assist  the  Protestant  princes,  and  to  cut  the  communica- 
tion between  the  Hapsburgs  of  Austria  and  of  Spain;  mar- 
riage of  Charles  I.,  of  England,  with  Henrietta  Maria  (i 
May.  1625);  the  fii;st  war  in  Italy  (1624-26);  the  Valteiline 
restored  to  the  Grisons;  the  second  war  in  Italy  (1628-30) 
against  Spain,  the  Empire  and  Savoy;  Richelieu  in  the  field; 
Pignerol  captured  (22  March,  1630),  and  his  candidate  recog- 
nized as  Duke  of  Mantua  by  the  Treaty  of  Cherasco  (6 
April,  1 631);  Richelieu's  support  of  the  Protestant  Nether- 
lands; Richelieu  and  the  German  Protestants;  Pere  Joseph 
at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (1630);  Gustavus  Adolphus  induced 
to  enter  Germany;  his  relations  with  Sweden;  intervention 
of  France  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1635). 
Death  of  Richelieu  (4  Dec,  1642),  followed  by  that  of  Louis  XIII. 
(14  May,  1643):  the  relations  between  them;  effect  of  Richelieu's  policy 
on  the  French  monarchy  and  on  the  position  of  France  in  Europe. 

Authorities  :  The  best  small  book  in  English  is  Lodge,  Richelieu,  and  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  Bridges^  France  under  Richelieu  and  Colbert.  Among 
secondary  works,  founded  on  documents,  consult  Perkins,  France  under  Riche- 
lieu and  Mazarin;  Perrens  works  cited  under  Lecture  2;  Zeller,  La  minorite  de 
Louis  XIII.;  Louis  XIII.,  Marie  de  Medicis,  chef  du  conseil;  Le  Connetable  de 
Luynes;  Richelieu  et  les  ministres  de  Louis  XIII.;  Puyol,  Louis  XIII.  et  le  Beam; 
Bazin,  Histoire  de  France  sous  Louis  XIII.;  Picot,  Histoire  des  Ktats  Generaux, 
vols.  4,  5;  Georges  d'Avenel,  Richelieu  et  la  monarchic  absolue,  4  vols.;  Topin, 
Louis  XIII.  et  Richelieu ;  Houssaye,  Le  Cardinal  de  Berulle  et  le  Cardinal 
de  Richelieu;    Basserie,   La   conjuration  de    Cibq-Mars ;    La   Garde,    Le    Due 


The  Thirty   Years'    War^   16^4-^8.  9 

de  Rohan  et  les  Protestants  sous  Louis  XIIT. ;  Laugel,  Henry  de  Rohan;  the  Vicomte 
de  Meaux^  La  Rdforme  et  la  politique  fran9aise  en  Europe,  2  vols.;  Fagniez,  Le 
Pcre  Joseph  et  Richelieu  2  vols.;  and  above  all  the  first  two  volumes  (all  yet  pub- 
lished), containing  the  latest  account  of  Richelieu's  early  years,  o{  Hanotaiix,  His- 
loire  du  Cardinal  de  Richelieu.  Among  seventeenth  century  histories  reference 
should  be  made  to  Aubery,  Memoircs  pour  Thistoire  du  Cardinal-Due  de  Riche- 
lieu, 5  vols.  The  great  primary  authority  is  the  collection  of  Lettrcs,  instruc- 
tions diplomatiques  et  papiers  d'Etat  of  Richelieu,  edited  by  Georges  d'Avenelt 
8  vols.,  in  the  Documents  inedits;  with  his  Maximesd'  Etat  in  the  same  collection, 
his  Memoires,  and  his  Memoire,  ^crit  de  sa  main,  I'annee  1607  ou  1610,  alors  qu'il 
m^ditait  de  paraitre  a  la  cour,  ed.  Baschet.  See  also  the  Memoires  of  Rohan,  Omer 
Talon,  Montglat,  Brienne,  Mathieu  Mole,  Madame  de  Motteville,  D'Estrees  and 
Fotiletiay-Mareuil,  the  Correspondance  of  Cardinal  de  Sourdis,  and  the  Mercure 
Frangois. 


LECTURE  5. 


THE  THIRTY  YEARS'   WAR :    FROM  1634  TO  1648. 

With  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  of  \yallenstein  the  war 
ceased  to  be  a  war  for  religion  and  assumed  a  more  political  aspect; 
the  ruin  of  Germany;  national  and  personal  ambitions;  the  mercenary 
troops  and  military  adventurers. 

Wallenstein's  army  brought  directly  under  the  Emperor:  position 
of  Bernard  of  Saxe-Weimar  (b.  1604);  the  Swedish  armies  and  the  pol- 
icy of  Chancellor  Oxenstiern  (b.  1583,  d.  1654). 

The  battle  of  Nordlingen  (5  and  6  Sept.,  1634):  defeat  of  the  Swedes 
under  Bernard  and  Horn;  its  important  results;  victorious  position  of 
the  Emperor  and  the  Catholics;  the  Elector  of  Saxony  made  peace 
with  the  Emperor  at  Prague  (30  Maj'-,  1635);  the  plans  of  Oxenstiern; 
if  the  Swedes  could  have  been  pacified  and  the  French  had  not  inter- 
vened, the  Thirty  Years'  War  might  have  ended. 

The  intervention  of  Richelieu:  occupation  of  Lorraine ;  Alsace 
granted  to  France  by  the  German  Protestant  princes  for  active  aid 
(Nov.,  1634);  purchase  of  Bernard  of  Saxe-Weimar  and  his  army 
(25  Oct.,   1635);    Richelieu's  alliance  with   Oxenstiern  (Apr.,   1635); 


lo  The  Thirty   Years'    War,  16^4.-^8. 

his  treaty  with  the  Dutch,  after  the  death  of  Isabella,  for  the  division 
of  the  Catholic  Netherlands  (8  Feb.,  1635);  his  negotiations  with  the 
Swiss  and  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  Mantua,  and  Parma;  effect  of  Richelieu's 
intervention  the  prolongation  of  the  war. 

France  invaded  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  northeast  and  by  the  Im- 
perialists on  the  east  (1636);  the  Swedish  general,  Baner,  forced  back  to 
the  Baltic;  closer  alliance  made  between  Richelieu  and  Oxenstiern;  the 
Saxons  and  the  Imperialists  defeated  by  Baner  (b.  1595)  at  Wittstock 
(4  Oct.,  1636). 

Ferdinand  III.  elected  Kmperor  (22  Dec,  1636);  death  of  Ferdinand 
II.  (15  Feb.,  1637). 

The  last  years  of  Richelieu's  foreign  policy:  the  successes  of  Bernard 
of  Saxe- Weimar  on  the  Rhine;  his  ambitions;  capture  of  Breisach  (17 
Dec,  1638);  death  of  Bernard  (18  July,  1639);  invasion  of  France  by 
the  vSpaniards  (1640);  battle  of  Chemnitz  (14  April,  1639)  and  death  of 
Baner  (20  May,  1641);  Richelieu's  attempt  to  divert  Spain  from  Ger- 
man affairs  by  causing  an  insurrection  in  Catalonia  (1640)  and  by  en- 
couraging the  revolution  in  Portugal  (1640). 

The  first  negotiations  for  a  general  peace  (1640-41)  ;  accession  of 
Frederick  William  as  Elector  of  Brandenburg  (1640)  ;  his  declaration 
of  neutrality  (1642). 

The  progress  of  the  war  after  the  death  of  Richelieu  :  rise  into  prom- 
inence of  Conde  (b.  1621,  d.  1686),  Turenne  (b.  1611,  d.  1675),  Torsten- 
son  (b.  1603,  d.  1651),  and  Wrangel  (b.  1613,  d.  1676);  Spain  unable 
to  assist  the  Emperor  without  further  subsidies  ;  destruction  of  the  Im- 
perial and  Saxon  army  by  Torstenson  at  Breitenfeld  (2  Nov.,  1642); 
outbreak  of  war  between  Denmark  and  Sweden  (1643),  ended  by  the 
Treaty  of  Bromsebro  (1645)  ;  Conde' s  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  at  Rocroi 
(19  May,  1643)  »*  reorganization  of  Bernard's  army  by  Turenne. 

Congresses  for  the  consideration  of  terms  of  peace  meet  at  Osnabriick 
and  Miinster. 

The  battles  of  Freiburg  (3-5  Aug.,  1644),  where  Turenne  and  Conde 
defeated  Mercy,  and  of  Jankau  (6  March,  1645),  where  Torstenson  de- 
stroyed an  Imperialist  army  ;  truce  made  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony 
with  the  Swedes  (31  Aug.,  1645)  ;  the  battles  of  Marienthal  (5  May, 
1645),  where  Mercy  defeated  Turenne,  and  of  AUersheim  (3  Aug.,  1645), 


The  Treaties  of  Westphalia,  II 

in  which  Mercy  was  killed  ;  the  invasion  of  Bavaria  :  the  Elector  Max- 
imilian forced  to  make  a  truce  at  Ulm  (15  March,  1647)  J  Turenne  and 
Wrangel  defeated  the  Bavarians  and  Imperalists  at  Zusmarshausen  (17 
May,  1648)  ;  Conde's  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  at  Lens  (10  Aug.,  1648) ; 
the  Castle  of  Prague  seized  by  the  Swedes  under  Konigsmark  (26  July, 
1648). 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  concluded  by  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  ( 24 
October,  1648) :  peace  made  by  the  Emperor  with  France  and  Sweden, 
but  Spain  remained  at  war  with  France. 

Authorities :  Gardiner,  The  Thirty  Years'  War,  is  the  best  small  book  in 
English  ;  Gindely  should  be  replaced  among  secondary  authorities  by  Bart- 
holdy  Geschichte  des  grossen  deutschen  Krieges  vom  Tode  Gustav  Adolfs  ab,  niit 
besondere  Riicksicht  auf  Frankreich,  2  vols. ;  Droysen,  Bernhard  von  Weimar,  2 
vols.;  Sugenkehn,  Frankreich's  Einfluss  auf  und  Beziehungen  zu  Deutschland,  vol. 
i.;  Koch,  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Reichs  unter  der  Regierung  Ferdinands  III., 
2  vols.;  Des  Roberts,  Campagnes  de  Charles  IV.,  due  de  Lorraine  (1634-1636); 
Heilmann,  Die  Feldziige  den  Bayern  in  1643,  1644  und  1645 ;  Dudik,  Die 
Schwedeu  in  Bohmen  und  Mahren  (1640-1650)  ;  Biedemtann,  Deutschlands 
triibste  Zeit,  oder  Der  dreissigjahrige  Krieg  in  seine  Folgen  fiir  den  deutsche  Cul- 
turleben  ;  the  Due  d'Aiimdle,  Histoire  des  princes  de  la  maison  de  Cond^,  vols.  5, 
6.  The  primary  authorities  as  for  Lecture  3,  with  the  addition  of  Georges  d* 
Avenel,  Richelieu's  Letters, cited  for  Lecture  4  ;  SzHagyi,  Actes  et  Documents  pour 
servir  a  I'histoire  de  I'alliance  de  Rakoczy  avec  les  Fran^ais  et  les  Suddois  ;  Bou- 
geant,  Histoire  du  Traite  de  Westphalie,  6  vols.,  and  Axel  Oxenstiema' s  Skriflen 
och  Brefvexling,  6  vols.,  and  omitting  Gardiner,  Letters,  Styffe,  Irtner  and  Wal- 
lenstein. 


LECTURE  6. 


THE  TREATIES  OF  WESTPHALIA. 

The  history  of  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  :  a  congress  for  peace  re- 
solved upon  in  1641  ;  suggested  by  the  Elector  of  Mayence  in  1639 ; 
approved  by  the  Imperial  Diet  at  Ratisbon  (1640-41);  suggestion  that 
two  congresses,  in  one  of  which  the  Emperor  should  deal  with  the 
Swedes.  Dutch  and  Protestant  princes,  and  in  the  other  with  France, 


12  The  Treaties  of  Westphalia. 

should  be  held  to  arrange  terms  of  peace,  at  Liibeck  and  Cologne  ;  at 
the  wish  of  the  Swedes  Osnabriick  and  Miinster  chosen  instead;  by  a 
resolution  of  the  Imperial  Diet,  with  the  assent  of  the  Kmperor,  the  Ger- 
man princes  and  free  cities  allowed  to  be  represented  at  the  congresses. 

Meeting  of  the  congresses  (1644)  •  Cardinal  Chigi,  Papal  Nuncio, 
and  Contarini,  Venetian  ambassador,  were  present  as  mediators  ;  Traut- 
mannsdorf,  Nassau  an^^V^lmar,  Lamberg  and  Crane  were  prej^ent  for 
the  Emperor  ;  Longuevme,  D^Avaux,  GrouUart  and  Abel  Servien  for 
France  ;  John  Oxenstiern  and  Salvius  for  Sweden;  Penaranda,  the 
Archbishop  of  Cambrai,  Saavedra  and  Brun  for  Spain  ;  and  Adrian 
de  Pauw,  with  seven  others,  for  the  United  Provinces  ;  delays  about 
precedence  ;  the  envoys  of  France  and  Sweden  presented  their  demands 
(June,  1645)  ;  effect  of  the  military  operations  on  the  negotiations  ;  the 
part  played  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  ;  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia 
signed  at  Miinster  (24  October,  1648). 

Chief  points  of  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia: 

A.  With  regard  to  non-German  states: 

/.  France  received  the  Three  Bishoprics  (Metz,  Toul  and  Verdun) 
occupied  in  1552,  Alsace,  except  Strasburg  and  reserving 
the  rights  of  the  Empire,  Breisach  and  the  right  to  garrison 
Philipsburg,  and  Pignerol;  the  Dufee  oJ[  Lorraine  not  to  be 
aided  by  the  Emperor  and  left  to  niake^a*.  separate  treaty 
with  France. 

ii.  Sweden  received  Western  Pomerania  wnth  the  island  of  Riigipn, 
Stettin,  Wismar,  the  archbishopric  of  Bremen  and  the  bisho- 
pric of  Verden,  with  representation  in  the  Diet  of  the 
Empire. 

Hi.  The  Swiss  cantons  were  recognized  as  independent  of  the 
Empire. 

iv.  The  Protestant  Netherlands,  which  had  been  recognized  as 
independent  of  Spain  by  Philip  IV.  (30  Jan.,  1648),  were 
declared  independent  of  the  Empire,  and  received  certain 
districts  in  Brabant  and  Luxemburg. 

B.  With  regard  to  German  states: 

/.  Brandenburg  received,  in  compensation  for  Western  Pomerania, 
the  archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  and  the  bishoprics  of  Hal- 


The  Treaties  of    Westphalia,  13 

berstadt,  Cammin  and  Minden.  [The  succession  to  Cleves- 
Julierswas  settled  in  1666  by  Brandenburg  receiving  Cleves, 
the  Mark  and  Ravensberg,  and  Neuburg  receiving  Juliers 
and  Berg.] 

ii.  Saxony  retained  Lusatia  and  part  of  Magdeburg. 

Hi,  Mecklenburg  received,  in  compensation  for  Wismar,  the  bis- 
hoprics of  Schwerin  and  Ratzeburg. 

iv.  Hesse-Cassel  received  the  abbey  of  Hirschfeld. 

V.  Bavaria  received  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  retained  the  elec- 
torate conferred  in  1623. 

vi,  Charles  Louis,  eldest  son  of  the  expelled  Elector  Palatine,  re- 
ceived the  lyower  or  Rhenish  Palatinate,  and  a  new  electorate 
was  created  for  him. 

C.  With  regard  to  the  religious  question: 

/.  The  terms  of  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  were  confirmed,  fixing 
the  date  for  ecclesiastical  property  at  i  Jan.,  1624. 

ii.  The  Ecclesiastical  Reservation  was  acknowledged  by  the 
Protestants. 

Hi.  Calvinism  was  recognized  as  well  as  Lutheranism. 

D.  With  regard  to  the  Empire  (efiect  of  the  book  "  Hippolithus  a 
L,apide  "  ) : 

/.  Territorial  supremacy,  including  the  right  of  making  alliances, 

granted  to  the  States  of  the  Empire. 
ii.  Powers  of  the  Imperial  Diet  (Reichstag)  defined. 
Hi.  Concurrent  jurisdiction  of  the  Imperial  Chamber  (Reichskam- 
mergericht)    and  Aulic   Council  (Reichshofrath)  acknowl- 
edged. 
K.  General  amnesty  declared,  and  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  made  a 
fundamental  law  of  the  Empire. 

Effect  of  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  on  Germany:  the  practical  dis- 
integration of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Effect  of  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  on  Europe:  commencement 
of  a  new  era,  in  which  political  succeeded  religious  distinctions. 

Authorities  :  All  secondary  histories  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  devote  their 
concluding  chapters  to  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia,  but  see  also  Kennter,  Abel 
Servien;  Odhner,  Die  Politik  Schwedens  im  Westphalischen  Friedenscongress  • 


14  The  Fronde, 

J.  S.  Putter,  Geist  des  Westphalischen  Friedes,aiid  his  Historical  Development  of 
the  Political  Constitution  of  the  Germanic  Empire,  vol.  ii.  The  primary  au- 
thorities are,  for  the  terms  of  the  treaties,  /.  G.  von  Meiern,  Acta  Pacis  West- 
phalicae  oder  Westphalische  Friedeshandlungen  und  Geschichte,  6  vols.;  and, 
for  the  history  of  the  negotiations,  Bougeant,  Histoire  du  Traite  de  Westphalie, 
useful  as  being  founded  on  D'Avaux,  Memoires;  Contarini,  Relazione  del  con- 
gresso  di  Munster;  Ogier,  Journal  du  Congres  de  Munster  (1643-47);  and  the  Cor- 
respondencia  diplomatica  de  los  plenipotenciarios  E^^paiioles  en  el  congreso  de 
Munster,  1643-1648  (vols.  82-84  of  the  CoUeccion  de  documentos  ineditos). 


LKCTURK  7. 


THE  FRONDE  AND  THE  TREATY  OF  THE  PYRENEES. 

Richelieu  on  his  deathbed  (1642)  named  Mazarin  his  succcessor;  six 
months  later  the  child,  Louis  XIV.  (b.  5  Sep^.,  1838),  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  France ;  the  Parlement  of  Paris  declared  Anne  of  Austria, 
the  queen-mother,  Regent ;  she  gave  both  power  and  affection  to 
Mazarin;  character  and  previous  career  of  Mazarin  (Giulio  Mazarini, 
b.  1602;  entered  the  French  service  and  became  cardinal,  1639). 

Mazariu  followed  accurately  Richelieu's  foreign  policy;  during  his 
administration  Conde  and  Turenne  won  their  first  victories  and  the 
Treaties  of  Westphalia  were  signed. 

What  France  gained  by  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia:  a  foothold  on  the 
Rhine  by  the  annexation  of  Alsace,  which  also  enabled  her  to  surround 
the  independent  Duchy  of  Lorraine  and  the  Spanish  province  of 
Franche-Comte. 

Spain  refused  to  make  peace  with  France  at  Miinster  owing  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war  known  as  the  "  Fronde." 

The  nature  of  the  Fronde  :  * '  playing  at  civil  war  "  ;  its  fruitlessness 
and  intrigues  ;   the  ' '  importants  ' ' ;  the  Mazarinades. 

The  Fronde,  first  phase  (1648-49)  :  part  played  by  the  Parlement  of 
Paris  and  the  Parisians  ;  arrest  of  Broussel  (26  Aug.,  1648) ;  the  ''  bar- 
ricades ' '  ;  Conde  and  the  Court ;  Conde  and  Mazarin ;  the  Peace  of 
Rueil  (11  March,  1649)  ;  flight  of  the  Court  from  Paris ;  second  phase 


V' 

The  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees.  15 

(1650-51):  arrest  of  Conde  (18  Jan.,  1650);  France  invaded  by  Tu- 
renne  with  a  Spanish  army  ;  the  battle  of  Rethel  (15  Dec,  1650)  ; 
union  of  the  "princely"  and  the  "parliamentary"  Frondes;  the 
Cardinal  de  Retz  (b.  1614,  d.  1679)  ;  Mazarin  in  voluntary  exile  (6 
Feb.  1651)  ;  third  phase  (1651-52):  Conde's  insurrection  in  the  south  ; 
return  of  Mazarin  (Dec,  1651)  ;  the  royal  party  joined  by  Turenne ; 
battle  of  the  Faubourg  Saint- Antoine  (2  July,  1652)  ;  Mazarin  again  in 
exile  (19  Aug.,  1652)  ;  fourth  phase  (1652-53)  ;  the  king  and  the  queen- 
mother  once  more  in  Paris  (21  Oct.,  1652)  ;  Conde  welcomed  by  the 
Spaniards  ;  De  Retz  imprisoned  ;  Gaston  of  Orleans  exiled  to  Blois ; 
final  return  of  Mazarin  (2  Feb.,  1653)  ;  end  of  the  Fronde. 

Mazarin' s  foreign  policy  :  the  war  with  Spain  pursued  with  vigor ; 
Turenne  commanding  the  French  and  Conde  the  Spanish  army  ;  Ma- 
zarin's  alliance  with  Cromwell  (3  March,  1657);  the  battle  of  the 
Dunes  (14  June,  1658);  capture  of  Dunkirk  and  advance  on  Brussels; 
formation  of  the  League  of  the  Rhine  (14  Aug.,  1658)  ;  the  new  Em- 
peror, Leopold  I.  (elected  1657),  bound  by  the  terms  of  his  capitulation 
not  to  send  help  to  Spain. 

Negotiations  for  peace  with  Spain  :  Mazarin's  hands  freed  by  the 
death  of  Cromwell  (3  Sept.,  1658). 

The  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  signed  by  Mazarin  and  Don  Luis  de  Haro 
in  the  Isle  of  Pheasants  (7  Nov.,  1659). 

Its  terms  :  (i)  France  received  Roussillon,  Artois,  and  parts  of  Flan- 
ders, Hainault  and  Luxemburg. 

(2)  Spain  abandoned  all  claims  to  Alsace. 

(3)  Charles  IV.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  was  to  cede  the  Barrois  and  cer- 
tain towns  to  France,  but  to  recover  Lorraine,  in  which  all  the  for- 
tresses were  to  be  dismantled;  (Charles  IV.  did  not  accept  these  condi- 
tions, and  by  a  later  treaty  (28  Feb.,  1661)  received  back  the  Barrois  as 
a  fief  of  France,  ceded  the  towns  mentioned  in  the  Treaty  of  Pyrenees 
and  others  to  France,  and  agreed  to  dismantle  Nancy). 

(4)  The  Prince  de  Conde  was  to  be  forgiven  and  reinstated. 

(5)  France  abandoned  the  King  of  Portugal. 

(6)  Louis  XIV.  was  to  marry  Maria  Theresa,  elder  daughter  of 
Philip  IV.,  King  of  Spain  :  she  was  to  renounce  forever,  for  herself  and 
her  descendants,  all  rights  of  succession  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  on  pay- 
ment of  a  dowry  of  500,000  crowns. 


1 6  Mazarin, 

Importance  of  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  as  the  supplement  to  the 
Treaties  of  Westphalia. 

Marriage  of  Louis  XIV.  to  the  Infanta  (9  June,  1660). 

Death  of  Mazarin  (9  March,  1661)  ;  success  of  his  foreign  policy  ;  his 
internal  policy  ;  neglect  of  the  finances  ;  destruction  of  feudal  castles  in 
France. 

lyife  and  work  of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  (1576-1660). 

Authorities  :  The  best  secondary  histories,  founded  on  documents,  for  the 
administration  of  Mazarin  are  Cheruel,  Histoire  de  la  France  pendant  la  minorite 
de  lyouis  XIV.,  4  vols.,  and  Histoire  de  la  France  sous  le  ministere  de  Mazarin,  3 
vols.  ;  Perkins^  France  under  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  ;  Comte  de  Cosnac,  Mazarin 
et  Colbert ;  Bazm,  Histoire  de  France  sous  le  ministere  du  Cardinal  Mazarin  ; 
Gaillardin,  Histoire  du  regne  de  Louis  XIV.,  vols,  i,  2  ;  Comte  de  Sainte-Aulaire, 
Histoire  de  la  Fronde,  2  vols.  ;  Due  d'Aumdle,  Histoire  des  Princes  de  Conde, 
vols.  5.  6,  7  ;  Victor  Cousin,  La  jeunesse  de  Mazarin,  Madame  de  Longueville,  2 
vols.,  Madame  de  Sable,  Madame  de  Chevreuse  and  Madame  de  Hautefort  ;  Cuk- 
nier^  Le  Cardinal  de  Retz  et  son  temps;  Chantelauze,  Louis  XIV.  et  Marie  Mancini, 
Le  Cardinal  de  Retz  et  I'afFaire  du  chapeau,  and  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  et  les 
Gondi;  Perey,  Louis  XIV.  et  Marie  Mancini;  Cherot,  La  premiere  jeunesse  de  Louis 
XIV.;  Renee,  Les  nieces  de  Mazarin;  Valfrey,  Hugues  de  Lionne  ;  Vast,  Les  grands 
traites  du  regne  de  Louis  XIV.  ;  Barante,  Vie  de  Mathieu  Mole  ;  Feillet,  La  Misere 
au  temps  de  la  Fronde  ;  Loth,  Saint"  Vincent  de  Paul  et  sa  mission  sociale  ;  Em- 
manuel  de  Broglie,  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul ;  Bourelly,  Cromwell  et  Mazarin,  and 
Le  marechal  de  Fabert ;  and  Tessier,  Le  Chevalier  de  Jant  et  les  relations  de  la 
France  avec  le  Portugal  au  temps  de  Mazarin.  Several  volumes  have  been  pub- 
lished on  the  local  history  of  the  Fronde,  among  which  may  be  noted  Saint-Marc, 
Bordeaux  sous  la  Fronde,  Debidour,  La  Fronde  angevine,  Audiat,  La  Fronde  en 
Saintonge,  and  Salomon,  La  Fronde  en  Bretagne.  The  chief  primary  authority 
is  the  collection,  ed.  by  CkSruel,  of  the  Lettres  du  Cardinal  Mazarin  pendant  son 
ministere,  8  vols.,  in  the  Documents  in^dits  ;  and  use  may  be  made  of  Turenne^ 
Correspondance  inedite  avec  Le  Tellier  et  Louvois,  ed.  Barthelemy  ;  Estrades,  Am- 
bassades  et  negotiations  en  Italie,  en  Angleterre,  et  en  Hollande  depuis  1637  jusqu'en 
1662  ;  Moreau,  Choix  de  Mazarinades,  2  vols.;  the  Journal  of  Olivier  Lefevre  d'Or- 
messon  ;  and  the  Lettres  of  Qui  Patin :  for  the  period  of  the  Fronde  there  are 
many  interesting  personal  memoirs,  to  be  used  with  caution,  among  which  may  be 
noted  the  M€mo\r&so^ Madame  de  Motteville,Omer  Talon,  Gourville,  Mademoiselle 
de  Montpensier,  Montglat,  Brienne,  Guy  Joly,  Mathieu  MoU,  Fontenay-Mareuil, 
La  Rochefoucauld,  and  above  all,  those  of  Cardinal  de  Retz,  with  the  addition  of 
the  Historiettes  of  Tallemant  des  Reaux,  and  Loret,  La  Muze  Historique,  ed.  Ra- 
venel  qnr^  La  Pelouze. 


Franci,  17 

LECTURE  8. 


EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDI.E  OF  THE  17TH  CENTURY. 


I.    FRANCE. 


Importance  of  the  study  of  the  history  of  France  in  the  17th  century 
rests  on  the  fact  that,  during  the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.,  its  institutions 
were  copied  all  over  Europe,  while  its  foreign  policy  was  the  keynote 
of  political  history;  it  was  France  w^hich  led  the  way  to  strong  central 
government  at  home,  supported  by  standing  armies,  and  the  adoption 
of  foreign  alliances  independent  of  religious  considerations. 

Government  of  France  as  moulded  by  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  for  the 
use  of  Louis  XIV. 

i.  The  Monarchy:  growth  of  its  powers;  its  strength;  the  Court. 
it.  The  Nobility:  blows  dealt  by  Richelieu;  tendency  to  become 
a  caste;  distinction  between  grande  and  petite  noblesse;  sur- 
vival of  privilege. 
in.  The  Church  in  France:  its  struggle  with  the  Huguenots;  con- 
trast between  Galilean  and  Ultramontane  ideas. 
iv.  The  Central  Administration:  its  strengthening,  the  great  aim 

of  the  French  monarchy;  creation  of  the  "intendants." 
V.  Local  Administration  :  distinction  between  pays  d' election 
and  pays  d'Etats  ;  the  provincial  Estates ;  the  cities  and 
towns;  privileges  of  the  municipalities;  the  **  Bourgeoisie." 
w.  The  Judicial  Administration:  the  Parlement  of  Paris  having 
jurisdiction,  and  being  court  of  appeals  in  criminal  matters, 
over  half  of  France;  the  seven  provincial  Parlements  of  Bor- 
deaux, Dijon,  Rennes,  Rouen,  Toulouse,  Aix  and  Grenoble; 
Louis  XIII.  created  two  at  Pau  (1620)  and  at  Metz  (1633), 
and  Louis  XIV.  two  more  at  Tournai  (1668),  moved  to 
Douai  (1713),  and  at  Besangjon  (1676);  the  "  Noblesse  de  la 
Robe' ' ;  the  strength  of  the  bar;  the  pays  du  droit  coutumier 
and  the  pays  du  droit  ^crit. 


1 8  France. 

viz.  The  Financial  Administration:  the  farmers-general;  the  taille, 

.  the  gabelle,  the  aides,  the  douanes. 
viii.  Manufactures  and  Commerce:   I^yons,  Marseilles,  Bordeaux, 

Dieppe  and  I^e  Havre;  the  guilds;  the  ouvriers. 
ix.  Agriculture:  the  seigneur,  the  farmer  and  the  peasant;  grande 
culture  and  petite  culture;  ''  copyhold  "  tenure  and  its  relics 
of  feudalism;  '  *  noble  land. ' ' 
X.  The  condition  of  the  poor  :  hospitals  ;  charit5^ 
xi.  Material  condition  :  roads  and  canals  ;  public  works. 
xii.  Intellectual     condition :     education  ;     colleges     and    village 
schools  ;  the  Academic  Frangaise  (1635)  ;  provincial  acade- 
mies ;  the  press,  pamphlets  and  newspapers  ;  foundation  of 
the  Gazette  by  Renaudot  (1631). 
xiii.  The  army  and  navy:  their  organization;  their  control  concen- 
trated in  the  hands  of  the  monarchy. 
Position  of  France  in  Europe  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 

i.  Geographical  conditions  :  additions  -made  hy  Richelieu  and 
Mazarin  ;  desire  for  a  defensible  frontier  ;  boundaries  of  lan- 
guage and  race  disregarded  ;  Alsace  ;  independence  of  lyor- 
raine  ;  Franche-Comte  subject  to  Spain  and  Avignon  to  the 
Pope. 
ii.  Growth  of  political  tradition  :  the  Foreign  Office ;  the  diplo- 
matists. 
Extra-European  expansion  of  France. 

/.  New  France  :  Canada  and  Acadia  ;  efforts  at  colonization. 
ii.  The  French  Antilles:  their  importance  to  France. 
Hi.  The  French  East- India  Company  of  Richelieu  (1640)  :  Mada- 
gascar. 
Strength  and  weakness  of  France  in  the  17th  century. 

Authorities  :  The  chapters  on  the  condition  of  France  in  the  secondary  bis- 
tories,  noted  under  Lectures  2,  4  and  7,  and  especially  in  Hanotaux,  Histoire  du 
Cardinal  de  Richelieu,  vol.  i.,  in  Georges  d^Avenel,  Richelieu  et  la  monarchie  abso- 
lue,  and  Cheruely  Histoire  de  la  France  pendant  la  minority  de  Louis  XIV.,  and 
Histoire  de  la  France  sous  le  ministere  de  Mazarin.  See  also  Cheruely  Histoire  de 
I'administration  monarchique  en  France,  2  vols. ;  Dareste^  Histoire  de  Tadminis- 
tration  et  des  progres  du  pouvoir  royal  en  France  ;  Caillet,  ly'administration  en 


The  Empire.  19 

Prance  sous  le  minist^re  de  Richelieu ;  Gasquet,  Prdcis  des  institutions  politiquea 
et  sociales  de  I'ancienne  France  ;  Lugay,  Les  origines  du  pouvoir  minist^riel  en 
France  :  les  Secretaires  d'Etat  depuis  leur  institution  jusqu'd  la  mort  de  Louia 
XV.  ;  Hanotaux,  Origine  de  I'institution  dcs  inteudants  des  provinces ;  Bastard 
d'Estang^  Les  parlements  de  France ;  Nervo,  I^es  finances  fran9aises,  2  vols. ; 
Claniageran^  Histoire  de  I'impot  en  France,  3  vols. ;  Fagniez,  L'^conomie  sociale 
de  la  France  sous  Henri  IV.  ;  Levasseur,  Histoire  des  classes  ouvrieres  en  France, 
2  vols. ;  Dareste,  Histoire  des  classes  agricoles  en  France ;  Susane,  Histoire  de 
I'ancienne  infanterie  fran9aise,  8  vols.,  and  Histoire  de  la  cavalerie  franjaise,  3 
vols.  ;  Guirin,  Histoire  maritime  de  la  France,  6  vols.  ;  Gougeard,  hs.  marine  de 
guerre  sous  Richelieu  et  Colbert ;  Gi/les  de  la  Tourette,  Theophraste  Renaudot  ; 
Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World ;  Boyer-Peyreleau,  Les  Antilles 
fran^aises ;  Dessalles,  Histoire  g^n^rale  des  Antilles  ;  Bonassieux,  Les  grandea 
compagnies  de  (otnmerce.  and  Castonnet  des  Fosses^  L'Inde  franjaise  avant 
Dupleix. 


LECTURE  9. 


EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE   17TH  CENTURY. 


2.    THE  EMPIRIC,    THS  HOUSE  OF  AUSTRIA,    AND  THE  GERMAN   PRINCES. 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire,  in  its  inception  the  lay  authority  ruling 
Western  Europe  in  conjunction  with  the  Papacy,  became  towards  the 
close  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  ruling  power  in  Germany,  and  by  the 
Treaties  of  Westphalia  lost  even  that  function. 

The  form,  precedence  and  tradition  of  the  Empire  remained  the  only 
symbol  of  German  unity,  and  the  different  states  and  categories  of 
states  of  the  Empire  must  be  regarded  as  independent  political  units, 
very  loosely  federated. 

There  were  about  360  sovereign  princes  in  Germany  and  about  50 
free  cities. 

The  constitution  of  the  Empire:  (i)  the  elective  Emperor;  (2)  the 
Imperial  Diet  comprising  (i)  the  College  of  Electors,  consisting  of  seven 
members;  (ii)  the  College  of  Princes,  consisting  of  about  one  hundred 
voices  (some  princes  had  more  than  one  voice,  e,  g,,  Brandenburg  six, 


20  The  Hapshurg  Dominions, 

Sweden  four,  etc.,  while  the  petty  princes  in  Franconia  and  Swabia 
elected  representatives,  known  as  "collegiate"  voices);  (iii)  the  Col- 
lege of  Free  Cities;  (3)  the  Imperial  Chamber;  (4)  the  Aulic  Council; 
(5)  the  Circles. 

Distinction  between  immediate  and  mediate  members  of  the  Holy- 
Roman  Empire. 

The  Diet  of  Ratisbon  declared  perpetual  (1663)  and  resident  envoys 
took  the  place  of  Princes  and  Electors. 

The  House  of  Hapsburg  the  most  powerful  in  Germany  from  its 
hereditary  dominions,  more  than  from  the  repeated  election  of  its  head 
as  Emperor;  but  its  expansion  was  henceforth  toward  the  east  and  not 
toward  the  west,  and  it  gradually  ceased  to  act  chiefly  for  German 
interests.  '  f 

The  dominions  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  : 

(i)  Austria  proper,  Styria.  Carinthia,  etc.  [the  Tyrol  ceded  by  Fer- 
dinand II.  to  his  brother  (1623)  reverted  to  the  Austrian  dominions 
(1665)];  their  administration;  the  powers  of  the  provincial  Diets  and 
extent  of  local  self-government.  ^     ^ 

(2)  Bohemia:  a  home  of  Protestantism;  its  sufferings  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War;  deprivation  of  its  local  autonomy  and  attempts  at 
Germanizing  the  Czechs. 

(3)  Part  of  Hungary:  divisions  of  the  kingdom  of  St.  Stephen  at 
the  commencement  of  the  17th  century: 

(i)  Transylvania  yt^o82  square  miles  :  its  diverse  races,  Magyar, 
German,  Romanian,  Slav,  and  its  diverse  religions,  Roman 
Catholic,  Eutheran,  Calvinist  and  Greek  Church;  the  reign 
and  policy  of  Gabriel  Bethlen  (1613-29);  George  Rakoczy 
I.  (1629-48);  George  Rakoczy  II.  (1648-60);  spasmodic  in- 
tervention in  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  encouragement  of 
Protestantism;  wary  policy  needed  for  maintenance  of  inde- 
pendence. "(O'KOdO 

(ii)  Turkish  Hungary:  1859  square  miles  :  its  condition  under 
Turkish  rule, 

(iii)  Hapsburg  Hungary,  governed  by  the.  Palatine  :  1222  square 
miles  :  the  power  of  the  Diet ;  progress  of  the  Counter- Re- 
formation;   the  work  of  Cardinal  Pazmany  (primate  16 16- 


Germany.  21 

37);  national  policy  of  Nicholas  Esterhazy  (palatine  1625- 
45);  Peace  of  I^inz  (1645),  recognizing  the  rights  of  Protes- 
tants. 
Administration  of  the  hereditary  dominions  of  the  House  of  Austria: 
the  councils  at  Vienna;  the  army  and  foreign  politics;  the  influence  of 
the  Jesuits. 
The  ecclesiastical  electorates:  Mayence,  Cologne  and  Treves. 
The  lay  electorates: 

(i)  Saxony:  its  condition  at  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia;  its  wealth 
and  compactness;  the  Elector  the  recognized  chief  of  the  German  Pro- 
testants; policy  of  John  George  I.  (1611-1656);  the  ambitions  of  Sax- 
5jny  turn  eastward. 

(2)  Brandenburg:  the  Elector  John  Sigismund  recognized  as  Duke 
bi  Prussia  (161 8),  as  a  feudatory  of  Poland;  the  claims  on  Pomerania 
and  Juliers-Cleves ;  the  policy  of  George  William,  brother-in-law  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  accession  of  the 
Great  Elector  (1640);  compensation  for  Pomerania  and  settlement  of 
Juliers-Cleves  pase  (1666)  gave  Brandenburg  an  increased  German 
interest;  Brandenburg's  advantages  from  the  Northern  War  (1656-60). 

(3)  Bavaria:  the  Elector  Maximilian  (i 596-1 651)  and  the  Counter- 
Reformation;  his  part  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

(4)  The  Palatinate:  importance  of  its  position  on  the  Rhine  with 
regard  to  France. 

The  lay  princes  of  the  Empire:  their  varying  power;  introduction  of 
primogeniture  in  i6th  and  17th  centuries;  its  effects;  their  love  of 
independence. 

The  ecclesiastical  princes  of  the  Empire:  the  Catholic  and  Protestant 
bishoprics;  their  chapters  take  the  place  of  provincial  Estates  or  Diets 
and  make  their  government  oligarchical. 

The  free  cities  of  the  Empire:  their  decline  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War;  decay  of  the  Hanseatic  League;  only  Hamburg,  Bremen  and 
Liibeck  renew  the  League  (1630);  trade  passes  to  the  Dutch  and  the 
English. 

The  knights  of  the  Empire:  their  dependence  on  the  Emperor. 

General  character  of  the  administration  in  Germany:  the  provincial 
Diets;  tendency  to  imitate  France. 


22  The  Netherlands. 

Depopulation  and  misery  caused  by  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  poverty 
of  Germany. 

Intellectual  condition:  the  foundation  of  universities  and  academies. 

Authorities  :  Among  books  in  English  may  be  noted  Leger^  Autriche-Hongrie, 
translated  by  Mrs.  Blrkbeck  Hill,  Coxe^  History  of  the  House  of  Austria,  4  vols., 
and  Vehse,  Memoirs  of  the  Court,  Aristocracy  and  Diplomacy  of  Austria,  2  vols.,  for 
Austria;  Tuttle,  History  of  Prussia,  vol.  i.,  and  Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  vol.  i.,  for  Prussia;  and  Putter,  Historische  Entwickelung  der  heutigen 
Staatsverfassung  des  deutschen  Reichs,  translated  by  Dornford,  vol.  2,  for  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire.  All  histories,  whether  of  the  Empire  or  of  separate  states, 
give  a  general  review  of  the  condition  of  Germany  at  the  time  of  the  Treaties  of 
Westphalia,  but  special  reference  may  be  made  to  Erdmannsdorffer ^  Deutsche 
Geschichte,  1 648-1 740,  vol.  i.,  Biedennann ^  Deutschlands  triibste  Zeit,  oder  Der 
dreissigjahrige  Krieg  in  seine  Folgen  fur  den  deutsche  Cultureleben  and  Hanser 
Deutschland  nach  dem  dreissigjahrige  Kriege. 


I^ECTURE  10. 


EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE  lyTn  CENTURY. 


3.   THE  NETHERI^ANDS. 

The  situation  of  the  Netherlands  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  : 
the  Protestant  Netherlands,  the  seven  United  Provinces  of  Holland, 
Zealand,  Gelderland,  Friesland,  Utrecht,  Groningen  and  Overyssel,  had 
practically  secured  their  independence  ;  the  Catholic  Netherlands  (now 
Belgium)  were  governed  by  the  Infanta  Isabella  (i599-i633),to  whom 
they  had  been  granted  as  dowry  by  Philip  II. 

The  constitution  of  the  United  Provinces  :  difference  in  character  of 
the  seven  provinces  ;  their  local  independence  ;  the  provincial  Estates ; 
the  weak  federal  power  of  the  States- General,  consisting  of  one  vote  for 
each  province  ;  the  Council  of  State  of  twelve  members,  three  for  Hol- 
land, two  each  for  Zealand,  Friesland  and  Gelderland,  and  one  each  for 
the  remaining  provinces,  with  two  votes  for  the  Captain-General  and  Ad- 


The  Netherlands,  23 

miral-General  ;  the  executive  authority  in  each  province  was  held  by  the 
Stadtholder  of  the  province  ;  the  executive  authority  of  the  Union  was 
held  by  the  Captain-  and  Admiral- General. 

William  the  Silent,  Prince  of  Orange,  had  been  Stadtholder  of  three 
provinces,  as  well  as  Captain-  and  Admiral-General  ;  his  son  Maurice 
( 1 585-1 625)  was  Stadtholder  of  five  provinces,  and  after  1620  of  all  the 
provinces  but  Friesland,  as  well  as  Captain-  and  Admiral  General. 

The  two  parties  in  the  Protestant  Netherlands  :  the  supporters  of  the 
Stadtholder,  Maurice  of  Nassau  (b.  1567),  and  the  republicans  led  by 
John  van  Olden  Barneveldt  (b.  1547),  Advocate  of  the  province  of  Hol- 
land ;  the  strength  of  the  former  among  the  country  gentlemen,  noble- 
men and  peasants  ;  of  the  latter  among  the  burghers  of  the  cities,  and 
especially  of  Amsterdam  ;  the  former  was  the  war  and  the  latter  the 
peace  party. 

The  war  of  independence  with  Spain  closed  by  a  twelve  years'  truce, 
negotiated  by  Henry  IV.  of  France  (1609), 

The  political  struggle  combined  with  a  religious  difference  :  the  Ar- 
minians,  or  Remonstrants,  against  the  Gomarists,  or  Calvinists  ;  the 
Synod  of  Dort  condemned  the  Arminians  (16 18)  ;  execution  of  Barne- 
veldt (19  May,  16 1 9)  ;  the  province  of  Holland  forced  to  ask  the  confir- 
mation by  the  Stadtholder  of  the  election  of  its  Pensionary,  the  leading 
civil  officer. 

The  end  of  the  truce  (1621)  :  part  played  by  the  Dutch  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  ;  Maurice  and  his  brother,  Frederick  Henry  (1625- 1647), 
the  Stadtholders,  occupied  Cleves  and  resisted  Spanish  invasion  ;  great- 
ness of  Frederick  Henry  ;  his  son  married  to  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles 
I.  of  England,  and  his  daughter  to  Frederick  William,  the  Great  Elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg. 

The  Catholic  Netherlands  under  Isabella  remained  contented  with 
their  local  government  and  in  comparative  tranquility,  but  when  France 
joined  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  Artois  was  occupied,  and,  after  Maz- 
arin's  treaty  with  Cromwell,  the  English  and  French  conquered  nearly 
up  to  Brussels ;  by  the  Treat}^  of  the  Pyrenees,  Artois  was  ceded  to 
France  (1659). 

By  the  Treaty  of  Miinster  (30  Jan.,  1648)  with  Spain,  the  Dutch 
promised  to  support  the  Spanish  rights  to  the  Catholic  Netherlands  in 


24  The  Dutch, 

return  for  closing  the  Scheldt  to  commerce  ;  by  this  means  the  United 
Provinces  secured  a  buffer  against  France,  and  Amsterdam  secured 
commercial  supremacy  at  the  expense  of  Antwerp. 

William  II.  (b.  1626),  elected  Stadtholder  of  all  the  provinces  but 
Friesland  (1647),  disapproved  of  the  reduction  of  the  army  as  a  result 
of  peace  ;  he  resolved  on  a  coup  d'etat ;  attempt  to  seize  Amsterdam 
(30  July,  1650);  death  of  William  II.  (6  Nov.,  1650);  birth  of  William 
III.  (14  Nov.,  1650;  ;  the  offices  of  Captain-  and  Admiral- General  abol- 
ished ;  the  Stadtholderate  of  five  provinces  left  vacant ;  William  Fred- 
erick of  Nassau,  Stadtholder  of  Friesland,  obtained  the  Stadtholderate 
of  Groningen  ;  government  divided  between  the  States- General  and 
the  provincial  Estates  ;  election  of  John  de  Witt  (b.  1625)  as  Pension- 
ary of  Holland  (1653)  in  the  place  of  Adrian  de  Pauw  ;  the  province 
of  Holland  and  John  de  Witt  took  the  direction  of  Dutch  policy. 

War  between  England  and  the  United  Provinces  (1652-54)  owing  to 
the  Navigation  Act  passed  by  the  English  Parliament  and  aimed  at  the 
Dutch  carrying  trade  ;  act  excluding  William  III.  forever  from  the 
Stadtholderate  of  Holland  passed  at  the  wish  of  Cromwell  (1654)  ; 
repealed  (1661)  ;  Perpetual  Edict  abolishing  the  Stadtholderate  in  Hol- 
land and  Utrecht  (1667). 

The  prosperity  of  the  Dutch  in  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century  : 
their  naval  and  commercial  monopoly;  its  causes  ;  its  political,  social 
and  material  effects. 

The  Dutch  in  Asia  :  the  first  voyage  of  Houtman  (1596);  they  seize 
the  spice  and  pepper  trade  ;  foundation  of  Batavia  (1619);  rivalry  with 
the  English  ;  massacre  of  Amboyna  (1623)  ;  expulsion  of  the  Portu- 
guese;  settlements  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  India,  Ceylon, 
the  Spice  Islands,  China  and  Jap^n. 

The  Dutch  in  South  America  :  their  establishment  in  Brazil  (1624- 
37)  ;  the  government  and  great  views  of  John  Maurice  of  Nassau- 
Siegen  (b.  1604,  in  Brazil  1637-44,  d.  1679);  their  expulsion  by  the 
Portuguese  (1655). 

The  Dutch  in  North  America  :  foundation  of  New  Amsterdam  ;  the 
New  Netherlands  and  the  emigration  thither. 

Contrast  between  the  Protestant  and  the  Catholic  Netherlands. 

Authorities:  Motley ^  History  of  the  United  Netherlands,  vols.  3  and  4,  and 


Sweden.  25 

Life  and  Death  of  John  of  Barneveldt,  2  vols. ;  Wenzelburger,  Geschichte  der 
Niederlande.  (t  >  1648);  Kervyn  de  Letienhove,  La  Flandre  pendant  les  trois  demiers 
si^cles,  3  vols.;  Groen  van  Prinsferer,  Archives  ou  correspondance  inddite  de  la 
maison  d' Orange-Nassau,  6  vols.  ;  A.  Waddington,  La  Rdpublique  des  Provinces- 
Unies,  la  France  et  les  Pays-Bas  espagnols  de  1630  4  1650 ;  Van  der  Capellen,  Ge- 
denkschriften ;  Left^vre-Pontalis,  Jean  de  Witt,  translated  into  English  ;  Cotnbes, 
Correspondance  Franfaise  du  grand  pensionnaire  Jean  de  Witt ;  Geddes,  History 
of  the  Administration  of  John  de  Witt,  vol.  i.  ;  Meinsma,  Geschiedenis  van  de 
Nederlandsche  Oost-Indische  Bezittingen,  2  vols.;  De  Jonge,  De  Opkomst  van  het 
Nederlandsch  Gezag  in  Oost-Indie,  14  vols.,  and  the  documents  published  by 
Aitzema  and  Sylvius y  and  by  the  Utrecht  Historical  Society. 


LECTURE  11. 


EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE  17TH  CENTURY. 

'  4-    SWEDEN    AND    DENMARK, 

Sweden  at  the  commencement  of  the  17th  century:  it  had  been  sepa- 
rated from  Denmark  and  Norway  by  the  valour  of  Gustavus  Vasa  (1523); 
the  Reformation  in  Sweden;  the  people  became  sturdy  Protestants; 
reigns  of  Eric  XIV.  (1560-68)  and  John  III.  (1568-92);  expulsion  of 
the  son  of  John  III.,  Sigismund  Vasa,  who  had  been  elected  King  of 
Poland  (1587),  on  account  of  his  Catholicism,  and  election  of  Charles  v^ 
IX.,  youngest  son  of  Gustavus  Vasa  (1598);  reign  of  Charles  IX.  ^:^---' 
(1598-1611),  a  reign  of  perpetual  war  with  the  Danes,  Poles  and 
Russians.  -    '  ^   -o^  -  '>  ^ 

Accession  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  (b.  1594),  son  of  Charles  IX.  (161 1): 
his  vigor  and  military  skill;  he  defeated  the  Danes  and  forced  them  to 
make  peace  at  Knarod  (16 13);  his  campaigns  against  the  Russians;  by 
the  Treaty  of  Stolbovo  (16 17)  he  restored  Novgorod,  but  retained  Fin« 
land,  Carelia,  Ingria  and  Esthonia;  his  marriage  to  Maria  Eleanor, 
sister  of  the  Elector  George  William  of  Brandenburg  (1620);  his  wars 
with  his  cousin,  Sigismund,  of  Poland,  whom  he  defeated  both  on  sea 


26  Sweden. 

and  land  (1621-29);  by  the  Truce  of  Altmark  (16  Sept.,  1629),  Sweden 
kept  lyivonia;  Gustavus  Adolphus  then  rqsolved  to  intervene  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War. 

The  constitution  of  Sweden:  the  restrictions  on  the  royal  authority; 
the  royal  title — "elected  king  and  hereditary  prince";  the  Diet  (Riks- 
dag); its  four  orders — nobility,  clergy,  bourgeoisie,  peasants;  its  pre- 
rogatives fixed  (1617);  the  Senate  (Riksrad);  its  composition  and 
functions.  \  v^ 

The  position  acquired  by  Sweden  by  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia:  the 
chief  territorial  power  on  the  Baltic,  as  ruler  of  Finland,  Carelia,  Ingria, 
Esthonia,  Livonia  and  Western  Pomerania,  with  an  outlet  on  the  North 
Sea  as  possessor  of  Bremen  and  Verden;  she  controlled  the  mouths  of 
the  Elbe,  the  Weser  and  the  Oder,  but  her  own  southern  provinces 
were  occupied  by  Denmark. 

Sweden  recognized  as  the  chief  military  power  in  Europe. 

The  Chancellor,  Axel  Oxenstiern  (b.  1583,  d.  1654):  his  policy;  his 
organization  of  the  Swedish  monarchy  on  an  oligarchical  basis;  the 
material  condition  of  Sweden;  its  sturdy  Lutheranism. 

The  reign  of  Queen  Christina  (b.  1626),  only  child  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus (1634-54):  her  assumption  of  the  direction  of  affairs  (1644)  on  the 
outbreak  of  war  with  Denmark;  the  Treaty  of  Bromsebro  (13  Aug., 
1645);  her  influence  in  favor  of  peace  in  the  negotiations  at  Osnabriick; 
her  internal  government;  abdication  in  favor  of  her  cousin,  Charles 
Gustavus  of  Deux-Ponts  or  Zweibriicken  (6  June,  1654);  her  fondness 
for  literature  and  science;  her  later  life;  she  became  a  Catholic  (1655), 
and  died  at  Rome  (19  April,  T68g\ 

The  reign  of  Charles  X.  (b.  1622):  as  a  soldier  he  desired  to  utilize 
the  Swedish  army;  his  conquest  of  Poland  (1656);  previous  relations  be- 
tween Poland  and  Sweden;  the  conduct  of  the  Great  Elector;  Charles  X. 
attacked  Denmark  (1657),  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Roskild  (7  March,  1658) 
obtained  the  Danish  provinces  in  Sweden,  namely,  Halland  and  Scania, 
with  the  island  of  Bornholm;  his  proposal  to  divide  Denmark,  and  attack 
on  Copenhagen  (1659);  interference  of  the  Dutch  and  other  powers; 
death  of  Charles  X.  (23  Feb.,  1660). 

Accession  of  Charles  XI.  (b.  1655):  regency  of  the  queen-mother, 
Hedwiga  of  Holstein-Gottorp;  the  war  closed,  owing  to  the  mediation 


Denmark,  27 

of  the  powers,  by  the  Treaty  of  Oliva  with  Poland,  by  which  Poland 
ceded  Lithuanian  Livonia  to  Sweden  and  John  Casimir  resigned  his 
claims  to  the  Swedish  throne  (3  May,  1660),  by  the  Treaty  of  Copen- 
hagen with  Denmark,  confirming  that  of  Roskild  (7  June,  1660),  and 
by  that  of  Kardis  with  Russia  (t  July,  1661),  confirming  the  cession  to 
Sweden  of  Ingria  and  Carelia. 

Position  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark  and  Norway  at  the  Treaties  of 
Westphalia  :  it  included  the  southern  provinces  of  Sweden,  and  thus 
controlled  the  commerce  of  the  Baltic  ;  relations  with  the  Empire  ow- 
ing to  the  connection  with  Schleswig  and  Holstein. 

The  aristocratic  constitution  of  Denmark  ;  the  monarchy  elective ; 
all  power  in  the  hands  of  the  Senate  (Rigsraad)  ;  the  Diet  (Rigsdaag) 
never  called  ;   the  peasants  reduced  to  serfdom. 

The  rivalry^etween  Denmark  and  Sweden  the  keynote  of  Danish 
foreign  policy  :  the  reign  of  Christian  IV.  (i 588-1648);  his  court ;  his 
fondness  for  Norway  and  foundation  of  Christiania  ;  his  misfortunes 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  ;  foundation  of  the  Danish  East  India 
Company  (1615)  and  occupation  of  Tranquebar  in  India. 

The  reign  of  Frederick  III.  (1648-70J  :  the  government  of  Ulfeldt 
and  the  nobles  ;  Ulfeldt  joined  Charles  X.  of  Sweden  and  induced  him 
to  attack  Denmark  ;  Denmark's  losses  by  the  Treaty  of  Roskild.    i^rL^W*^ 

The  Revolution  of  1660  :  overthrow  of  the  power  of  the  nobles'Tthe 
monarchy  of  Denmark  made  hereditary  and  absolute  ;  regular  meet- 
ings of  the  Diet  or  States- General  promised,  but  it  was  never  called  ; 
resumption  of  lands  granted  to  noblemen  ;  improvement  in  adminis- 
tration. 

The  Germanizing  of  Denmark  ;  the  situation  in  Norway  ;  its  pov- 
erty and  hatred  for  Sweden. 

The  supremacy  of  the  Baltic  moved  from  Denmark  to  Sweden. 

Authorities :  As  small  books  see  Otte,  Scandinayian  History;  Bain,  Christina, 
Queen  of  Sweden,  and  Geffroyy  Les  ^tats  Scandinaves.  Among  secondary  an- 
thorities  consult  the  large  general  history  by  Fryxell  (not  translated);  Carlson f 
Geschichte  Schwedens,  vols.  5,  6,  translated  and  continued  from  Geijer ;  Cron- 
holm,  Sveriges  Historie  under  Gustaf  II.  Adolphs  Regering,  6  vols,  (not  trans- 
lated); Grauert,  Christina,  Konigin  von  Schweden,  und  ihr  Hof,  2  vols.;  Arcken- 
holtz,  M6moires  pour  servir  ^  I'histoire  de  la  reine  Christine,  4  vols.;  Haumant^ 


28  Russia, 

La  Guerre  du  Nord  ( 1655-60) ;  Allen,  Histoire  de  Danemark,  and  Spittler,  Ge- 
schichte  der  Danischen  Revolution  im  Jahre  1660,  being  vol.  5  of  his  Sammtliche 
Werke. 


I^ECTURE   12. 


EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDI.E  OF  THE  17TH  CENTURY. 


5.    RUSSIA   AND   POI.AND. 

The  contrast  between  the  Slavs  of  the  Greek  Church  in  Russia,  and 
the  Slavs  of  the  Roman  Church  in  Poland,  the  former  being  essentially- 
Asiatic,  and  the  latter  essentially  European. 

The  backv^^ardness  of  Russia  and  its  Asiatic  character  due  to  histor- 
ical circumstances,  but  chiefly  to  the  conquest  by  the  Mongol  hordes, 
and  its  derivation  of  Christianity  from  Constantinople. 

The  epic  character  of  the  great  struggle  with  the  Mongols,  and  its 
effect  in  forming  the  Russian  people. 

The  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  (1533-84)  marked  the  emergence  of 
Moscow  as  the  centre  from  which  the  Russian  Empire  was  to  grow  ;  he 
took  the  title  of  Tsar  (1547)  ;  bis  wars  with  the  Tartars  on  the  south 
and  east,  and  with  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians  and  Livonians  on  the 
west  and  northwest ;  his  endeavors  to  reach  the  Baltic  ;  his  relations 
with  the  powers  of  western  Europe,  and  especially  with  Elizabeth  of 
England  ;  opening  up  of  trade  between  Russia  and  England  by  way  of 
the  White  Sea  and  Archangel ;  the  Muscovy  Company  ;  invasion  of 
Siberia  ;  the  government  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  ;  his  autocracy ;  his 
struggles  with  the  nobility  ;  his  "  States -General  ";  his  personality. 

Russian  history  in  the  17th  century,  until  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great, 
a  commentary  on  the  aims  and  ideals  of  Ivan  the  Terrible. 

The  reign  of  Feodor  Ivanovitch  (1584-98):  institution  of  serfdom 
(1597)  and  creation  of  the  patriarchate  of  Moscow  (1589);  the  reign  of 
Boris  Godiinov  (1598-1605);  the  first  and  second  "false"  Dimitri ; 
civil  war  and  anarchy;  the  "  troublous  times  " ;  the  Poles  at  Moscow 
(161 2);  election  of  Michael  Romanov  as  Tsar  (16 13)  by  the  States 
General. 


Poland. 


29 


The  reign  of  Michael  Romdnov  (1613-45):  restoration  of  internal 
peace  and  tranquility;  his  wars  with  the  Swedes  (1613-17),  and  with 
the  Poles  (1613-19,  1632-35);  moral  and  material  condition  of  Russia. 

The  reign  of  Alexis  Romdnov  (1645-76):  autocracy  legalized  ;  the 
boyars ;  the  code  of  Alexis  ;  Nikon's  reform  of  the  Russian  liturgy  ; 
popular  risings  ;  Stenka  Razin  (1666-71);  the  Cossacks. 

The  insurrection  of  the  inhabitants  of  Little  Russia  and  the  Cossacks 
against  Poland  under  Bogdan  Khmelnitzski  (1648);  his  dream  of  an 
independent  Cossack  state;  Cossacks  declared  themselves  subjects  of 
the  Tsar  (1654);  importance  of  this  act;  death  of  Khmelnitzski  (1657); 
war  with  Poland;  by  Truce  of  Androussovo  (1667)  Russia  obtained  the 
left  bank  of  the  Dnieper  as  its  frontier,  with  Kiev  and  Smolensk  on  the 
right  bank. 

The  condition  of  Poland  in  the  17th  century:  the  turbulence  of  the 
nobles;  the  pacta  conventa;  the  right  of  confederation;  the  "liberum 
veto  "  first  employed  by  a  single  individual  to  check  legislation  (1652); 
the  work  of  the  Jesuits;  the  Counter- Reformation;  intensity  of  religious 
bitterness  between  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Poland  and  the  Greek 
Catholics  of  Lithuania. 

The  most  notable  events  since  the  Union  of  Lublin  (1569)  uniting 
Poland  and  Lithuania;  contrast  between  Poland  and  Lithuania;  the 
death  of  the  last  of  the  Jagellons,  hereditary  Grand  Dukes  of  Lithuania 
(1572);  election  to  the  throne  of  Poland  thrown  open;  contest  between 
the  Lithuanian  party,  looking  to  Russia,  and  the  Polish  party,  looking 
to  Austria;  the  secularization  of  Prussia  by  Albert  of  Hohenzollern, 
Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  as  a  fief  of  Poland  (1525);  the 
suppression  of  the  Knights  of  the  Sword  (1561),  j^ielding  Riga  to 
Sweden,  Livonia  to  Poland,  and  making  Kettler,  the  last  Grand 
Master,  Duke  of  Courland,  as  a  feudatory  of  Poland. 

The  reign  of  Sigismund  III.,  Vasa  (1587- 163 2):  his  Catholicism; 
expelled  from  the  throne  of  Sweden  (1598);  his  wars  with  Sweden, 
Russia  and  the  Turks ;  granted  Ducal  Prussia  to  the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  as  a  fief  (16 18);  his  war  with  Gustavus  Adolphus  of 
Sweden  (1621-29)  and  numerous  defeats;  the  "Union"  (1595);  a  third 
party,  the  "uniates",  thus  added  to  the  religious  strife;  the  reign  of 
Ladislas  IV.  (VII.),  Vasa  (1632-48);  Poland  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War. 


30  The  Turks. 

The  reign  of  Cardinal  John  Casimir  Vasa  (1648-68):  his  wars  with 
Sweden  and  Russia;  by  the  Treaty  of  Wehlau  (24  Sept.,  1657)  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  recognized  as  independent  Duke  of  Prussia, 
free  from  the  suzerainty  of  Poland;  the  insurrection  of  Bogdan  Khmel- 
nitzski;  the  Truce  of  Androussovo;  abdication  of  John  Casimir  (1668); 
he  died  at  Paris  (1672). 

In  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  Russia  is  growing  politically 
stronger  from  her  concentrated  autocracy  and  Poland  politically  weaker 
from  her  anarchic  constitution. 

Authorities  :  Morfill,  Story  of  Russia,  and  Story  of  Poland;  Ramhaud,  Histoire 
de  la  Russie,  translated  by  L.  B.  I^ang,  2  vols.;  Karamzine,  Histoire  de  I'empire 
de  Russie,  translated  from  the  Russian,  11  vols.;  Merimee,  Les  faux  Demetrius, 
and  Les  Cosaques  d'  autrefois  :  Bogdan  Chmielnicki ;  Chodzko,  La  Pologne  histo- 
rique  et  monumentale;  Salvandy,  Histoire  de  Pologne  avant  et  sous  le  Roi  Jean 
Sobieski,  3  vols. 


LECTURE    13. 


EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE  17TH  CENTURY. 


6.      THE    OTTOMAN    TURKS- 

The  extent  of  Islam  at  the  commencement  of  the  17th  century:  origin 
of  the  Turks. 

The  Ottoman  Turks  at  the  height  of  their  power  in  the  i6th  century: 
Sulaiman  the  Magnificent  (1520-66);  the  European  possessions  of  the 
Turks;  their  northern  capital  at  Buda,  in  Hungary;  their  control  of 
the  Levant;  blow  dealt  to  them  by  the  loss  of  the  passage  of  the 
Asiatic  trade  through  Egypt;  Venice  induced  the  Turks  to  oppose  the 
Portuguese  in  Asia  ;  their  power  in  Northern  Africa  and  in  the  Medi- 
terranean; the  Barbary  Corsairs. 

Organization  of  the  Turkish  power:  the  Sultan  as  Caliph;  the  Ule- 
mas;  the  Janissaries. 

Resistance  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John:  the  defense  of  Malta  (1565). 


The  Turks,  31 

Attitude  of  Europe  towards  the  Turks:  spasmodic  attempts  of  the 
Popes  to  stir  up  Christendom  against  them;  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (7 
Oct.,  1571);  the  alliance  with  France;  the  "capitulations";  the  Eng- 
lish Levant  Company  obtained  similar  privileges  (1580);  and  the  Dutch 
traders  (161 2). 

Poland  and  Hungary  the  bulwarks  of  Christendom  against  the  Turks; 
the  Turkish  suzerainty  over  the  Danubian  Provinces  and  Transylvania; 
the  religious  attitude  of  the  Turks:  the  Greek  Church  and  the  Turks; 
their  welcome  of  renegades. 

Fortunately  for  Christian  Europe  during  the  critical  period  of  the 
Wars  of  Religion  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  Turks  remained 
quiet;  the  Sultans  degenerated  in  character;  and  between  the  death  of 
Sulaiman  the  Magnificent  (1566)  and  the  accession  of  Muhammad 
Kiuprili  to  power  (1656)  their  only  conquests  were  Cyprus,  taken 
(1571)  and  Tunis  retaken  (1574);  causes  of  this  sudden  degeneracy. 

The  Janissaries  became  Sultan-makers;  they  were  permitted  to  marry 
and  the  tax  of  Christian  children  ceased. 

Internal  dissensions  marked  the  reign  of  Muhammad  III.  (1595- 
1603):  Ahmad  I.  (1603-17):  by  the  Truce  of  Komorn  with  the  Emperor 
(11  Nov.,  1606)  the  Sultan  renounced  his  claim  to  tribute  from  the 
Emperor,  and  his  exclusive  suzerainty  over  Transylvania  ;  treaties  with 
England  and  the  United  Provinces,  and  war  with  Persia  ;  the  imbecil- 
ity of  Mustapha  I.  (161 7-18,  1622-23);  the  reign  of  Othman  II. 
(1618-22)  and  his  murder. 

Murad  IV.  (1623-40):  his  capture  of  Bagdad  (25  Dec,  1638);  his 
cruelty  ;  execution  of  the  Grand  Mufti  (1634),  and  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  (1636);  Ibrahim  I.  (1640-48);  recapture  of  Azov  (1642); 
attack  on  Candia  in  Crete  (1645);  his  order  to  murder  all  Christians ; 
assassinated  by  the  Janissaries;  accession  of  Muhammad  IV.  (1648); 
troubles  during  his  minority. 

Appointment  of  Muhammad  Kiuprili  (b.  1585),  a  renegade  Albanian, 
to  be  Grand  Vizier  with  full  powers  (1656):  his  great  reforms;  he 
restored  the  force  of  the  Ottoman  Turks ;  his  internal  policy  ;  the 
execution  of  the  Greek  Patriarch  ;  his  foreign  policy  ;  his  victories  over 
the  Venetians  and  the  Cossacks  :  new  feudatory  princes  appointed  in 
Transylvania,  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  ;  his  death  (1661). 


32  The  Turks. 

Ahmad  Kiuprili  (b.  1626)  appointed  Grand  Vizier,  (1662):  he  ravaged 
Transylvania  (1661),  invaded  Hungary  (1663)  and  prepared  to  march 
on  Vienna ;  the  Emperor  Leopold  resolved  to  resist  the  Turks  and 
called  for  the  help  of  Christendom  ;  the  Diet  of  the  Empire  agreed,  and 
Louis  XIV.  sent  6,000  Frenchmen  ;  Montedt^ccoli  (b.  1608,  d.  1680)  de- 
feated the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Saint-Gothard  (i  Aug.,  1664)  and 
saved  Vienna;  the  Truce  of  Vasvar  (10  Aug.,  1664);  Michael  Apafy 
recognized  as  Prince  of  Transylvania  by  both  Emperor  and  Sultan,  but 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  latter ;  the  seven  provinces  of  Hungary  left  as 
before,  three  to  the  Emperor  and  four  to  the  Sultan. 

The  siege  of  Candia;  aid  sent  to  the  Venetians  by  Louis  XIV.;  sur- 
render of  Morosini  to  Ahmad  Kiuprili  (27  Sept.,  1669). 

The  Cossacks  called  in  the  help  of  the  Turks  against  Poland 
(1672);  Ahmad  Kiuprili  took  Kaminietz  and  conquered  Podolia ;  by 
the  Treaty  of  Budziak  or  Buczac  (18  Oct.,  1672)  Poland  ceded  Podolia 
and  the  Ukraine  to  the  Turks  and  promised  to  pay  tribute  ;  the  treaty 
disavowed  by  the  Polish  Diet  (1673);  John  Sobieski  defeated  the  Turks 
at  Choczim  (10  Nov.,  1673)  and  at  Lemberg  (24  Aug.,  1675);  by  the 
Treat}'  of  Zuravna  (27  Oct.,  1676)  the  Turks  retained  Kaminietz  and 
Podolia,  but  gave  up  the  Ukraine  and  the  tribute ;  death  of  Ahmad 
Kiuprili  (30  Oct.,  1676). 

The  greatness  of  the  Kiuprilis  :  the  sudden  resurrection  of  the  Otto- 
man power ;  its  significance. 

Authorities  :  Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  and  Stanley  Lane-Poole, 
The  Story  of  Turkey, and  The  Story  of  the  Barbary  Corsairs  are  readable  books  ; 
Ranke,  Fiirsten  und  Volker  von  Siid-Europa  ;  die  Osmanen  und  die  spanische 
Monarchic im  i6ten  und  lyten  Jahrhundert  (vols.  35,  36  of  his  Sammtiiche  Werke) 
is  more  scientific;  modern  works  are  mainly  based  on  Von  Hainmer,  Geschichte  des 
Osmanischen  Reichs.,  4  vols.,  translated  into  French  as  L'Histoire  de  I'Bmpire  Ot- 
toman, 18  vols.,  and  on  Zinkeisen,  Geschichte  des  osmanischen  Reichs  in  Europa, 
7  vols.  See  also  Naima,  Annals  of  the  Turkish  Kmpire  from  1591  to  1659,  trans- 
lated from  the  Turkish  by  Eraser,  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  Negotiations  (1621-28).  Gon' 
taut-Biron,  Ambassade  en  Turquie  de  Jean  de  Gontaut-Biron  (1605-10),  and  Xen^ 
opoly  Histoire  des  Roumains  de  la  Dacie  Trajane. 


Italy,  33 

LECTURE  14. 


EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE  .17TH  CENTURY. 


7.      ITAI^Y. 


Italy  at  the  commencement  of  the  17th  century  :  the  idea  of  Italian 

unity  preached  by  Dante  and  Machiavelli  had  been  extinguished  by  the 

vitality  of  local  life  and  local  rivalries ;  the  Italians  preferred  local  to 

national  patriotism  ;  therefore  Italy  was  largely  ruled  by  foreign  powers. 

The  three  prominent  factors  : 

i.  The  power  of  the  Papacy  represented  more  than  the  actual  ex- 
tent of  its  dominions, 
ii.  The  great  extent  of  Spanish  power,  comprising  Sicily,  Naples. 
Milan,  Finale,  the  Tuscan  presidios  and  Sardinia  ;  Spain  and 
the  Pope  ruled  two-thirds  of  Italy, 
iii.  The  growth  of  Savoy. 
The  divisions  of  Italy  and  their  relations  to  each  other. 
I.  The  States  of  the  Church  consisted  of  the  Patrimony  of  Saint 
Peter,  and  the  surrounding  districts  ;  of  the  duchy  of  Spoleto,  including 
Perugia  (1520)  ;  of  the  March  of  Ancona  (1532)  ;  of  the  Romagna  C1503)  ; 
of  Bologna  (1513),  and  of  Ferrara  (1598),  together  with  the  duchies  of 
Benevento  and  Ponte-Corvo,  within  the  borders  of  Naples,  and  the  city 
of  Avignon  and  the  county  of  the  Venaissin,  within  the  borders  of 
France;  to  these  were  added,  during  the  17th  century,  Urbino  (1631) 
and  Castro  (1649). 

Alteration  in  the  character  of  the  Popes  :  they  become  more  Italian 
and  temporal  in  their  aspirations  ;  their  attitude  towards  European  af- 
fairs ;  their  influence  in  Italy  ;  their  nepotism  ;  their  administration  ; 
the  Roman  nobility  ;  the  beautification  of  Rome.  Clement  VIII — Al- 
dobrandini — his  anti-Spanish  policy  ;  annexed  Ferrara  (1598)  ;  died 
1605  ;  Leo  XI. — Medici — 1605  ;  Paul  V. — Borghese — 1605-21  :  his  quar- 
rel with  Venice;  Gregory  XV. — Ludovisi— 1621-23  ;  Urban  VIII. — 
Barberini — 1623-44  :  his  anti-Spanish  policy  and  friendship  for  Riche- 
lieu ;  his  administration  ;  fortification  of  Rome  ;  annexation  of  Urbino 


34  li^b- 

(1631)  ;  war  with  Parma  (1641-44)  ;  Innocent  X. — Pamfili — 1644-55  • 
destruction  of  Castro  (1649)  ;  his  negotiations  with  Mazarin  ;  condemna- 
tion of  Jansenism  ;  favoritism;  Alexander  VII. — Chigi — 1655-67:  rise 
in  power  of  the  "  Congregations";  the  plague  at  Rome  (1656}  ;  his 
quarrel  with  Louis  XIV.;  Avignon  occupied  by  the  French  (1663-65); 
Si^^omission  of  the  Pope. 

II.  The  Spanish  dominions  : 

i.  Sicily:  its  feudal  nobility  ;  the  rising  against^pain  (1647)  and 

its  suppression.  ^ 

ii.  Naples  :  the  government  of  the  Spaniards  ;  Ossuna's  attempt 
at  revolt  (1620)  ;  the  tax  on  fruit  imposed  by  Arcos  ;  the  ris- 
ing of  Masaniello  (1647)  5  action  of  the  Due  de  Guise  ;  sup- 
pression of  the  insurrection  (April,  1648). 

iii.  The  following  ports  and  cities  in  Tuscany,  known  as  the 
''presidios",  occupied  by  Spain  since  1555:  Argentaro, 
Porto  Ercole,  Santo  Stefano,  Talamone,  Orbitello,  Piombino 
and  Porto  Longone. 

iv.  Duchy  of  Milan  :  exactions  of  the  Spanish  government. 

V.  Marquisate  of  Finale. 

vi.  Sardinia. 

III.  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany  :  the  later  Medici  ;  the  tranquil  reign 
of  Ferdinand  II.   (1620-70)  ;    his  encouragement  of  science  and  art. 

IV.  Duchy  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  :  government  of  the  Farnesi ;  the 
war  with  the  Pope  (1641-44,  46-49)  about  the  Duchy  of  Castro. 

V.  Duchy  of  Modena  and  Reggio  :  government  of  the  Estensi ;  their 
friendship  for  France  ;  their  desire  to  recover  Ferrara. 

VI.  Duchy  of  Mantua  and  Montferrat :  the  war  for  the  Mantuan 
Succession  (1627)  on  the  death  of  Vincent  Gonzaga  II.;  the  Em- 
peror and  Spain  supported  the  Duke  of  Guastalla ;  Richelieu  sup- 
ported Charles  Gonzaga,  Due  de  Nevers  ;  the  city  of  Mantua  sacked  by 
the  Imperialists  (18  July,  1630)  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Cherasco  (1631) 
Charles  was  acknowledged  as  Duke,  but  Savoy  obtained  part  of  Mont- 
ferrat ;  in  return  for  its  assistance,  France  was  allowed  to  garrison 
Casale. 

VII.  Duchy  of  Guastalla  :  Duke  Ferdinand  Gonzaga  I.  claimed  Man- 
tua (1627)  ;  influence  of  Spain  and  the  Emperor. 


Italy.  35 

VIII.  Republic  of  Venice  :  the  decline  of  its  commerce  ;  its  political 
importance  in  the  I^evant  and  in  Italy  ;  the  government  of  the  Republic 
its  internal  policy  ;  its  foreign  policy  ;  the  quarrel  with  Pope  Paul  V. 
Venice  under  an  interdict  (1606-07);  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi  (b.  1552,  d.  1623) 
the  conspiracy  of  Bedmar  (161 8)  ;  struggle  with  the  Turks  ;  the  war  in 
Crete  (1645-69). 

IX.  Republic  of  Genoa  :  its  weakness  ;  its  troubles  with  Corsica  ; 
wealth  of  its  bankers  ;  its  fidelity  to  Spain  the  cause  of  attacks  and 
menaces  by  France  and  Savoy. 

X.  Republic  of  Lucca  :  its  commercial  prosperity. 

XI.  Duchy  of  Savoy  :  the  importance  of  its  position  holding  the 
passes  of  the  Alps  between  France  and  Italy  ;  possession  of  Piedmont 
makes  the  dukes  more  Italian  than  French. 

Charles  Emmanuel  I.  (i  580-1630)  ;  at  first  a  faithful  ally  of  Philip  II., 
whose  daughter  he  had  married  ;  ceded  Bresse,  Bugey  and  Gex  to 
Henry  IV.  (1601)  in  exchange  for  Saluzzo  ;  Henry  IV. 's  dream  of  a 
kingdom  of  the  Alps ;  Charles  Emmanuel  declared  for  national  inde- 
pendence of  Italy  against  Spain;  the  Mantuan  Succession  (1627); 
Savoy  obtained  part  of  Montferrat  (1631). 

Victor  A^^^:eki\.  (1630-37)  :  his  alliance  with  France  ;  married  to  a 
daughter  of  Henry  IV.  ;  by  the  treaty  of  Rivoli  (1635)  formed  a  league 
against  Spain  with  Mantua  and  Parma  ;  cession  of  Pignerol  to  France. 

Charles  Emmanuel  II.  (1638-75)  ;  regency  of  Maria  Christina  of 
France  (1637-48)  ;  civil  war  (1639-42),  the  Regent  being  aided  by 
France  and  the  late  king's  brothers  by  Spain  ;  his  policy  ;  persecution 
of  the  Vaudois  ;  schemes  on  Genoa  ;  the  House  of  Savoy  regarded  Italy 
"  as  an  artichoke  to  be  eaten  up  leaf  by  leaf. ' ' 

Authorities:  Among  small  books  in  Mnglisb,  or  translated  into  English, 
may  be  noted  Trollope,  Paul  the  Pope  and  Paul  the  Friar;  H.  F.  Brown,  Venice ; 
Malleson,  Studies  from  Genoese  History ;  and  for  Masaniello  and  Naples  during 
this  period,  Von  Reurnont,  The  Carafas  of  Maddaloni ;  Naples  under  Spanish  Do- 
minion. Among  secondary  histories  consult  Botta,  Storia  delP  Italia,  vols. 
5-8  ;  Cantti,  Storia  degli  Italiani ;  Ranke,  Die  romischen  Papste  im  i6ten  und  lyten 
Jahrhundert,  3  vols.,  translated  by  Austin,  vol.  3  ;  Brosch,  Geschichte  des  Kirchen- 
staates,  2  vols.  ;  De  Mouy,  L'Ambassade  du  Due  de  Cr^qui  (1662-65),  2  vols.  ; 
Giannone,  Istoria  civile  del  Regno  di  Napoli ;  Hervey  de  Saint- Denis,  Insurrection 
de  Naples  en  1647,  translated  from  Rivas,  2  vols. ;  Loiseleur,  Mazarin  et  le  Due  de 


36  Spain. 

Guise  in  his  Questions  historiques  du  XVIP  siecle  ;  Von  Reumont,  Geschichte  Tos- 
canas  unter  die  Medici,  2  vols.  ;  Cantii,  Ragionamenti  suUa  Storia  Lombarda  del 
secolo  XVII. ;  Bianchi-Giovini,  Biografia  da  Fra  Paolo;  Cornet,  Paolo  V  e  la  republica 
Veneta  (1605-7)  I  -Daru,  Histoiie  de  Venise,  vols,  x-xiv  ;  Garzoni,  Istoria  della  re- 
publica di  Venezia  ;  Ricotti,  Storia  della  monarchia  piemontese  ;  Costa-  Beauregard y 
Memoires  historiques  sur  la  Maison  royale  de  Savoie,  4  vols.  ;  Belgiojoso,  Histoire  de 
la  Maison  de  Savoie  ;  Baux,  Histoire  de  la  reunion  a  la  France  des  provinces  de 
Bresse,  Bugey,  Gex;  Carutti,  Storia  della  diplomazia  della  corte  di  Savoia,  4  vols.,  and 
Claretta,  Storia  del  regno  di  Carlo  Emanuele  II.,  2  vols.  ^hQ primary  authori- 
ties are  to  be  found  in  Muratori,  Botero,  the  collections  of  official  documents, 
and  the  Archivio  Storico  Italiano,  while  for  the  attempt  of  Guise  on  Naples  may  be 
noted  Modene,  Histoire  des  revolutions  de  la  ville  et  du  royaume  de  Naples,  and 
Loiseleur  and  Baguenault  de  Puchesse,  ly'expddition  du  Due  de  Guise  a  Naples,  and 
for  the  quarrel  between  the  Pope  and  Venice,  Sarpi,  Opere. 


LECTURE  15. 


EUROPE)  IN  THE  MIDDLE   OF  THE   17TH   CENTURY. 


8.      SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAI,. 

The  extent  of  the  dominions  of  the  Spanish  Hapsburgs  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  17th  century  :  vSpain,  Portugal,  Sardinia,  Naples, 
Sicily,  the  Milanese,  Roussillon,  Franche-Comte,  the  Catholic  Nether- 
lands, Central  and  South  America,  the  West  Indies,  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands and  the  various  settlements  of  the  Portuguese  in  Africa  and  Asia. 

The  policy  of  Philip  II.  and  its  effect  on  the  strength  of  Spain  at 
home  and  abroad  :  Spain  and  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  weakness  of  Spain  at  home  :  bad  internal  administration  ;  steril- 
izing effect  of  the  wealth  drawn  from  the  colonies ;  colonial  adminis- 
stration. 

The  weakness  of  Spain  abroad :  the  war  with  England  and  the 
Protestant  Netherlands  ;  the  attitude  of  France  and  of  the  Empire. 

Yet  the  seeming  power  of  Spain  overshadowed  Protestant  Christen- 
dom :  policy  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  of 
England,  Richelieu,  Mazarin  and  Cromwell  toward  Spain. 


Spain  and  Portugal,  37 

Reign  of  Philip  III.  (i 598-1 621):  the  administration  of  the  Duke  of 
Lerma  ( 1598-1618);  his  internal  policy  ;  the  expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes 
(1609);  his  foreign  policy  ;  peace  with  England  (1604);  truce  with  the 
Protestant  Netherlands  (1609) ;  the  French  alliance  and  marriages 
(1612) ;  Lerma  made  a  cardinal  and  dismissed  (1618);  succeeded  by 
his  son,  the  Duke  of  Ucedo. 

Reign  of  Philip  IV.  (1621-65):  administration  of  the  Count-Duke 
Olivares  (1621-43);.  Spain  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  ;  Spinola  occupied 
the  Palatinate  (1621);  renewal  of  war  with  the  Dutch  (1621);  Spain 
struggled  with  France  for  supremacy  in  Northern  Italy  and  was  three 
times  worsted,  (i)  in  the  affair  of  the  Valtelline  (1625),  (2)  in  the  Man- 
tuan  Succession  (1627-30),  (3)  in  the  Valtelline  (1635);  Richelieu's 
efforts  to  overthrow  the  power  of  Spain  ;  the  revolt  of  Catalonia  and  of 
Portugal  (1640)  ;  dismissal  of  Olivares  (1643^ 

Administration  of  Don  Luis  de  Haro  (1643-65):  defeat  of  the  Span- 
iards at  Rocroi  (1643) ;  and  again  at  Lens  (1648)  ;  Spain  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  Protestant  Netherlands  at  Miinster  (1648); 
Spain's  attempts  to  take  advantage  of  the  Fronde  in  France  ;  Cromwell 
and  Mazarin ;  defeat  of  Spain ;  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyre- 
nees (7  Nov.,  1659), by  which  Spain  lost  Roussillon  and  Artois ;  mar- 
riage of  Louis  XIV.  to  Maria  Theresa  of  Spain  ;  the  question  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  ;  death  of  Philip  IV.  (17  Sept.,  1665). 

Condition  of  Portugal  during  the  "  Sixty  Years'  Captivity  "  to  Spain 
(1580-1640^;  ruin  of  her  commerce;  loss  of  her  monopoly  of  the 
Asiatic  trade ;  the  Dutch  seized  the  Spice  Islands  and  established 
themselves  in  Brazil ;  discontent  felt  in  Portugal ;  preparations  for 
revolt ;  negotiations  with  Richelieu. 

The  Revolution  of  1640  :  the  Duke  of  Braganza  hailed  as  John  IV.; 
independence  of  Portugal  recognized  by  France  and  the  Dutch  ;  help 
sent ;  revolt  of  the  Asiatic  and  African  possessions  and  Brazil  against 
Spain  ;  commencement  of  the  War  of  Independence;  difficulties  of  John 
IV.;  his  death  (1656). 

Reign  of  Affonso  VI.  (1656-67):  government  of  the  queen-mother 
(1656-62);  Schomberg  (b.  161 8,  d.  1690)  organized  the  Portuguese 
army  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  (1659),  Mazarin  promised  Spain 
to  abandon  his  support  of  Portugal ;  but  he  brought  about  the  marriage 


38  France  Voider  Louis  XIV.  and  Colbtn, 

of  Charles  II.  of  England  with  Catherine  of  Braganza  (1662;;  impor- 
tance of  the  English  alliance;  administration  of  Castel  Melhor  (1662- 
67);  continuation  of  the  War  of  Independence;  victories  of  Schomberg; 
court  revolution  (1667);  Dom  Pedro  declared  Regent  and  AfFonso  VI. 
sent  to  the  Azores;  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  signed  at  Lisbon  (13  Feb., 
1668)  and  the  independence  of  Portugal  recognized. 

Significance  of  the  Revolution  of  1640  :  condition  of  Portugal  and  its 
importance  as  an  ally  of  England.  ^ 

Authorities :  As  small  books  may  be  noted  Dunham,  History  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  vols.  3,  4,  which  is  old-fashioned  but  fairly  correct  for  Spain,  and  Morse 
Stephens^  Story  of  Portugal.  As  secondary  authorities  consult,  for  Spain,  the 
volumes  on  this  period  in  Lafuente,  and  other  consecutive  histories  of  Spain  ; 
WeisSy  I/'Bspagne  depuis  le  regne  de  Philippe  II.  jusqu'a  I'av^nement  des  Bour- 
bons, 2  vols.;  Philippson,  Heinrich  IV.  und  Philipp  III.;  Melo,  Guerra  de  la  Cata- 
luiia,  translated  by  L,eonce  de  Lavergne  ;  Watson,  History  of  the  Reign  of  Philip 
III.,  and  Dunlop,  Memoirs  of  Spain  during  the  reigns  of  Philip  IV.  and  Charles 
II.,  2  vols.,  both  old-fashioned  but  containing  much  that  is  valuable;  for  Portu- 
gal, Oliveira  Martins,  Historia  de  Portugal ;  Rebello  da  Silva,  Historia  de  Portu- 
gal durante  os  seculos  XVI.  et  XVII.,  5  vols.  (1557-1656);  Vertot,  Revolutions  de 
Portugal,  and  Tessier,  Le  Chevalier  de  Jant :  relations  de  la  France  avec  le  Portu- 
gal au  temps  de  Mazarin.  Among  primary  authorities  for  Spanish  history 
during  the  century  may  be  noted,  in  addition  to  the  Coleccion  de  documentos  in- 
editos,  Morel- Fatio,  L'Espagne  au  XVI^  et  XVIP.  siecle  :  documents  historiques 
et  litteraires,  Denans  de  Courchetet,  Histoire  des  n^gociations  et  du  traits  de  paix 
de  Pyrenees,  and  Mignet,  Negociations  relatives  a  la  succession  d'Espagne  sous 
Louis  XIV.,  vol.  i.;  for  Portugal,  Borges  de  Castro  and  Judice  Biker,  Colleccao 
dos  actos  publicos  celebrados  entre  a  Coroa  de  Portugal  e  as  mais  potencias  desde 
1640  ;  Carte,  History  of  the  Revolutions  of  Portugal  with  the  Letters  of  Sir  R. 
Southwell  to  the  Duke  of  Ormond  ;  and  Sir  Richard  Fanshaw,  Original  Letters 
during  his  Embassies  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 


V    LECTURE   16.  •'-w^ 


FRANCE  UNDER  LOUIS  ^IV.  AND  CQLBERT :  TO  THE  REVOCATION 
OFTHE^EDICT  OF  NANTES,  1685. 

Louis  XIV.  assumed  the  actual  government  of  France  on  the  death 
of  Mazarin  (1661):  his  personality  ;  his  political  aims  ;  how  far  he  con- 


France  Under  Louis  XIV.  and  Colbert.  39 

tinned  the  work  of  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  ;  how  far  he  was  an  orig- 
inator. 

His  first  ministers  :  the  chancellors  Seguier  (1656-72),  d'Aligre 
(1672-77)  and  I^eTellier  (1677-85);  Hugues  de  L,ionne  (1663-71),  Pom- 
ponne  (1671-79)  and  Colbert- Croissy  (1679-96),  foreign  affairs  ;  Le  Tel- 
lier  (1643-66)  and  Louvois  (1666-91),  war  ;  Fouquet  (1653-61)  and  Col- 
bert (1661-83),  finances ;  Colbert  (1668-76)  and  Colbert-Seignelay 
(1676-90),  marine. 

The  overthrow  of  Fouquet  (1661). 

The  work  of  Colbert  (b.  16 19,  d.  1683):  he  arranged  the  finances  of 
France ;  he  built  up  manufactures  by  a  protective  policy ;  he  encour- 
aged commerce  and  occupied  San  Domingo ;  he  created  the  French 
navy  ;  his  personal  probity  ;  his  hatred  of  war  ;  his  love  of  public 
works  ;  the  great  canal  of  Languedoc  made  by  Riquet. 

Louvois  (b.  1641,  d.  1691)  and  his  work  :  he  organized  the  army  ;  his 
military  reforms  ;  formation  of  uniformed  regiments,  etc  ;  the  great 
French  generals,  Turenne  and  Conde,  Luxembourg  and  Vauban. 

The  internal  policy  of  Louis  XIV.:  he  attracted  the  nobility  to  Court 
and  kept  them  out  of  politics  ;  he  built  up  the  administrative  sj^stem  ; 
the  intendants  of  the  provinces  ;  the  new  official  nobility  ;  the  police 
system  ;  the  suppression  of  local  liberties  and  municipal  government ; 
the  "King  and  his  ministers  the  pivot  of  the  highly  centralized  govern- 
ment. 

The  position  of  the  Parlements  :  especially  the  Parlement  of  Paris  ; 
growing  importance  of  the  noblesse  de  la  robe. 

The  splendor  of  Louis  XIV.:  he  established  himself  at  Versailles 
and  made  it  the  seat  of  government  (1682);  importance  giv^en  by  him 
to  the  Court ;  influence  of  society  and  social  observances  ;  etiquette  ; 
effect  of  the  removal  from  Paris  ;  his  absolutism  in  society  as  well  as  in 
politics. 

Immorality  of  Parisian  society  :  the  case  of'jMadame  de  Brinvilliers 
(1676);  the  "  poisoning  affairs  "  (1680). 

Louis  XIV.  and  the  Catholic  Church  :  his  quarrel  with  Pope  Alex- 
ander VII.  (1662-64)  ;  his  quarrel  with  Pope  Innocent  XI.  (1687-89)  ; 
the  claims  of  the  Gallican  Church  ;  the  Assembly  of  16S2  ;  the  attitude 
of  Louis  XIV.  to  the  Papacy  ;  the  Jansenists  and  their  doctrines ;  the 


40  France  Under  Louis  XIV.  and  Colbert. 

position  of  the  Huguenots  ;  the  new  policy  adopted  by  the  King ;  the 
dragonnades  ;  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (22  Oct.,  1685). 

Condition  of  the  French  provinces  under  Louis  XIV.  :  suppression 
of  brigandage  and  crime  ;  the  "  Grands  Jours  d'  Auvergne  "  (1665-66); 
hard  lot  of  the  peasants  ;  provincial  life  among  the  petite  noblesse  and 
the  bourgeois  ;  prosperity  of  the  cities,  and,  under  Colbert,  of  industry 
and  commerce. 

Louis  XIV.  and  literature  :  the  classic  age  ;  French  tragedy  and 
comedy  created  by  Corneille,  Racine  and  Moliere  ;  the  great  French 
preachers,  Bossuet,  Mascaron,  Flechier  and  Bourdaloue;  the  prose 
writers,  Pascal  and  La  Bruyere  ;  Boileau  and  the  canons  of  poetry  ; 
history  and  Mezeray  ;  the  work  and  position  of  the  Academic  Frangaise. 

Louis  XIV.  and  art :  the  painters,  Poussin,  Le  Sueur  and  Le  Brun  ; 
the  architects,  Mansart  and  Perrault ;  the  gardener,  Le  Notre  ;  founda- 
tion of  the  Academies  of  Sciences  and  of  Inscriptions  and  of  the  School 
of  Rome. 

Private  life  of  Louis  XIV.:  his  principal  mistresses,  Mdlle.  de  La 
Valliere,  Madame  de  Montespan  and  Mdlle.  de  Fontanges  ;  death  of  the 
Queen  (1683)  ;  his  private  marriage  to  Madame  de  Maintenon  (1684). 

The  year  of  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  marked 
a  change  in  the  character  and  policy  of  Louis  XIV  :  he  is  henceforth  in- 
fluenced by  Madame  de  Maintenon  and  his  confessors  Pere  La  Chaise, 
and  Pere  Letellier ;  after  the  death  of  Colbert  the  Spanish  Succession 
became  his  one  aim. 

Impression  which  the  days  of  the  glory  of  Louis  XIV.  made  on 
Europe  :  the  imitators  of  his  ideas  and  of  his  splendor. 

Authorities  :  Hassall,  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Zenith  of  the  French  Monarchy  is  the 
best  little  book  in  English  on  the  period  ;  but  Voltaire,  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.,  is 
not  likely  to  be  superseded.  Among  secondary  authorities  may  be  noted  Gail- 
lardin,  Histoire  du  regne  de  Louis  XIV.,  vols.  3.  4 ;  Lair,  Louise  de  Valliere  et  la 
jeunesse  de  Louis  XIV.,  and  Nicolas  Fouquet,  2  vols. ;  Cheruel,  De  I'administra- 
tion  de  Louis  XIV.  ( 1661-72),  and  Memoires  sur  la  vie  publique  et  privee  de  Fou- 
quet, 2  vols.;  Clement,  Hi-^toire  de  Colbert  et  de  son  administration,  2  vols;  Le  Gouv- 
ernement  de  Louis  XIV.,  ou  la  cour  I'administration,  les  finances  et  le  commerce 
de  1683-89 ;  La  Police  sous  Louis  XIV.,  and  Madame  de  Montespan  et  Louis  XIV.; 
Neymarck,  Colbert  et  son  temps,  2  vols.;  Rousset,  Histoire  de  Louvois,  4  vols.; 
Kerviler,  Le  chancelier  Pierre  Seguier ;   Chantelauze,  Le  Cardinal  de  Retz  et  ses 


Foreig7i  Policy  of  Louis  XIV,  41 

missions  diplomatiques  d  Rome;  Gazicr,  Les  dernieres  anndes  du  Cardinal  de  Retz; 
Loyson,  L'Asseuiblec  du  clcrg6  de  France  de  1682;  Michaud,  Louis  XIV.  et  Inno- 
cent XI.,  4  vols.;  Baiisset,  Histoire  dc  Bossuet,  4  vols.,  and  Histoirc  de  F^nelon,  4 
vols.;  Benoit,  Histoire  de  1' ^dit  de  Nantes;  Douen,  La  Revocation  de  1'  Edit  de 
Nantes  a,  Paris  ;  Bianquis^  La  Revocation  dc  1' Edit  de  Nantes  d  Rouen;  Soulice^ 
L'intendant  Foucault  et  la  Revocation  en  B^arn;  Puaux  and  Sabniier,  Etudes  sur  la 
Revocation  de  I'l^dit  de  Nantes,  and  Lemontey^  Essai  sur  retablissement  monarcb- 
ique  de  Louis  XIV  ;  Martin^  La  Monarchie  au  XVIIi^me  si^cle  ;  essai  sur  le  sys- 
timc  et  I'influence  personelle  de  Louis  XIV.  The  primary  authorities  for  the 
administration  of  Louis  XIV.  are  Louis  XIV.,  Oeuvres,  ed.  Grouvelle^  6  vols. ;  M^m- 
oire  de  Louis  XIV.  pour  I'instruction  du  Dauphin,  ed.  Dreyss  ;  Clement,  Lettres, 
instructions  et  m^moires  de  Colbert,  7  vols.;  Boislisle,  Correspon  dance  des  control- 
eursg^n^raux  des  finances  avec  les  intendants  des  provinces,  2  vols.,  and  M^m- 
oires  des  intendants  sur  I'^tat  des  g^n^ralit^s,  and  Depping,  Correspondance  admin- 
istrative sous  leregne  de  Louis  XIV.,  4  vols.,  in  the  Documents  inddits  ;  for  the  ad- 
ministration in  the  provinces  see  also  the  works  cited  under  Lecture  29.  Among  the 
vast  number  of  memoirs,  etc.,  maybe  noted  the  Journal  of  Lefivre  d'  Onnesson; 
the  Me  moires  of  Madame  de  Motteville,  Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier,  La  Fare^ 
Gomuille  and  Foucault;  Cosnac,  Souvenirs  du  r^gne  de  Louis  XIV.,  8  vols. ;  Flech' 
ier,  Memoires  sur  les  Grands  Jours  tenus  a  Clermont  en  1665-66,  ed.  Gonod  ;  and 
Bussv-Rabutin,  Correspondance  ( 1663-93),  ed.  Lalanne;  with,above  all,the  Letters 
of  Madame  de  ^vign^f  with  Combes^  Madame  de  Sevign^  historien. 


LECTURE   17. 


THE  FOREIGN  POLICY  OF  LOUIS  XIV.  :    TO  THE  TREATIES  OF 

NIMEGITEN,  1678. 

Position  of  the  powers  of  Europe  toward  each  other  when  Louis 
XIV.  assumed  the  government  of  France  (166 1). 

The  17th  century  theory  of  the  State  :  the  idea  of  religious  unity 
was  giving  way  to  the  conception  of  national  unity  concentrated  in 
the  person  of  the  Monarch  ;  exceptions,  the  Protestant  Netherlands 
and  England. 

The  Restoration  in  England  (1660):  extinction  of  feudal  relics ;  the 
power  of  Parliament  and  development  of  commercialism  ;  the  contest 
for  the  commerce  of  the  world  between  England  and  the  Dutch. 


42  Foreigfi  Policy  of  Louis  XIV, ,  1661-68. 

Advantages  possessed  by  France  in  the  new  era  of  diplomatists  and 
standing  armies  :  lyouis  XIV.  understood  and  dominated  the  new  era  ; 
his  foreign  office  and  diplomatists  ;  his  army,  its  organization  and  its 
generals  ;  his  navy. 

I,ouis  XIV.  resolved  to  use  these  advantages  to  enlarge  the  borders 
of  France,  and,  for  internal  and  external  reasons,  decided  on  a  war 
policy. 

Louis  XIV.  and  diplomatic  privileges  :  the  case  of  D'Estrades  at 
London  (1661),  and  of  Crequi  at  Rome  (1662). 

Louis  XIV.  and  England  :  marriage  of  Henrietta  of  England,  sister 
of  Charles  II.,  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  (1661)  ; 
purchase  of  Dunkirk  (17  Oct.,  1662). 

Louis  XIV.  and  Spain  :  his  hopes  of  the  succession  ;  his  claims  for 
diplomatic  precedence  granted. 

Louis  XIV.  and  Germany  :  help  sent  to  the  Emperor  against  the 
Turks  (1664)  ;  Ms  influence  with  the  League  of  the  Rhine  and  the  west 
German  princes. 

Louis  XIV.  and  the  Turks  :  Beaufort  defeated  the  Barbary  Corsairs 
(1663-65)  ;  help  sent  to  the  Venetians  in  Candia. 

Louis  XIV.  and  the  Dutch  :  his  relations  with  John  de  Witt ;  efiect 
of  Colbert's  protective  policy  on  the  Dutch. 

The  naval  war  between  England  and  the  Dutch  (1664-67)  :  causes  of 
the  war  in  commercial  rivalry  ;  the  republican  party  and  the  House  of 
Orange  ;  capture  of  New  Amsterdam  ;  battle  of  Lowestoft  (3  June, 
1665)  ;  the  attack  of  Galen,  Bishop  of  Miinster,  on  the  Dutch  ;  Louis 
XIV.  declared  war  against  England  (26  Jan.,  1666);  battle  of  the 
Downs  (1-4  June,  1666);  Louis  XIV.  made  an  agreement  with  Charles 
II.  (March,  1667)  ;  the  Dutch  in  the  Medway  ;  Treaty  of  Breda  (31 
July,  1667)  ;  England  abandoned  the  trade  of  the  Spice  Islands,  but 
kept  the  New  Netherlands. 

The  War  of  Devolution  (1667-68)  :  pretext  for  the  war ;  isolation  of 
Spain  ;  Louis  XIV.  took  the  border  fortresses  of  the  Catholic  Nether- 
lands and  occupied  Franche-Comte  ;  the  Triple  Alliance  ;  by  the  Treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (2  May,  1668)  France  kept  French  Flanders,  but  re- 
stored Franche-Comte  to  Spain. 

The  Triple  Alliance  between  England,  Sweden,  and  the  Dutch  (23 


Tlic  Dutcli  IVar,  16'/ 2-^8.  43 

Jan.,  1668)  :  its  importance;  the  principle  of  the  Balance  of  Power, 
one  of  the  keynotes  of  European  policy  for  more  than  a  century,  devised 
by  Sir  William  Temple,  to  check  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  position  in  the  Protestant  Netherlands :  the  policy  of  John  de 
Witt ;  his  opposition  to  the  House  of  Orange  ;  character  of  William 
III. 

Louis  XIV.  broke  up  the  Triple  Alliance  by  the  Treaty  of  Dover 
with  England  (i  June,  1670),  and  by  detaching  Sweden  (14  April,  1672); 
secret  treaty  with  the  Emperor  for  dividing  the  Spanish  Succession  (19 
Jan.,  1668),  followed  by  a  treaty  of  neutrality  (i  Nov.,  167 1)  ;  treaty 
with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  (17  Feb.,  1670). 

Louis  XIV.  attacked  the  Dutch  (1672)  :  their  sole  ally  the  Great 
Elector,  Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg ;  William  III.  appointed 
Captain- General  by  the  States- General  of  the  United  Provinces  (4  Feb., 
1672)  ;  passage  of  the  Rhine  by  the  French  army  (12  June)  ;  the  Dutch 
cut  their  dykes  (18  June);  William  III.  proclaimed  Stadtholder  of 
Holland  and  Zealand  (4  July)  ;  murder  of  John  d^  Witt  (20  Aug.)  ; 
treaty  with  the  Emperor  (27  Oct.)  ;  the  Great  Elector  forced  to  make 
peace  with  France  at  Vossen  (10  Apr.,  1673). 

The  naval  war  :  England  joined  France;  the  battle  of  Solebay  (7 
June,  1672);  the  Dutch  successful  under  Cornelius  Tromp  (b.  1629,  d. 
1691),  and  Ruyter  (b.  1607,  d.  1676),  in  1673  (7  June,  14  June,  21 
August);  peace  between  England  and  the  Dutch  (19  Feb.,  1674). 

The  continental  war  :  coalition  formed  against  Louis  XIV.  by  the  Em- 
peror and  the  Great  Elector  (23  June,  1672);  conference  at  Cologne 
(June,  1673)  ;  the  Emperor  formed  a  second  coalition  with  the  Dutch, 
joined  in  succession  by  Spain  and  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  (30  Aug.,  1673), 
Denmark  and  the  Elector- Palatine  (Jan.  and  March,  1674),  the  Empire 
(28  May,  1674),  and  the  Great  Elector  (i  July,  1674);  the  Electors  of 
Treves  and  Cologne  forced  to  abandon  France  (1673);  Sweden  re- 
mained her  only  ally. 

Campaign  of  1673  :  capture  of  Maestricht  (29  June,  1673)  ;  Turenne's 
strategy  ;  campaign  of  1674  ;  Louis  XIV.  occupied  Franche-Comtd  ; 
William  III.  defeated  by  Conde  at  Senef  (11  Aug.,  1674)  ;  Turenne 
crossed  the  R^iine  and  ravaged  the  Palatinate  ;  campaign  of  1675  ;  Tu- 
renne and  Mootecuecoli  in  Alsace  ;  Turenne  killed  (27  July) ;  naval 


44  T^i^   Treaties  of  Ni7iieg7ie7i,  i6y8, 

victories  of  Du  Quesne  (b.  1610,  d.  1688)  in  the  Mediterranean;  death 
of  Ruyter  (Apr.,  1676);  subsequent  campaigns;  capture  of  the  border 
fortresses  by  the  French. 

Treaties  of  Peace  signed  at  Nimeguen  ; 

i.  Between  France  and  the   Dutch  (10  Aug.,   1678)  by  which 

France  restored  Maestricht  and  the  Dutch  ceded  nothing. 
ii.  Between  France  and  Spain  (17  Sept.,  1678)  by  which  Spain 
ceded  Franche-Comte,  and  Valenciennes,  Cambrai  and  other 
towns  in  French  Flanders,  to  France, 
iii.  Between  France  and  the  Emperor  (5  Feb.,   1679)  by  which 
France  restored  Philipsburg,  but  retained  Breisach  and  Frei- 
burg. 
These  treaties  supplemented  by  (i.)  that  of  Saint- Germain-en-Laye 
(29  June,   1679)  between    Brandenburg    and    Sweden  ;    (ii.)    that   of 
Fontainebleau  (26Sept  ,  1679)  between  Denmark  and  Sweden;  by  which 
Brandenburg  and  Denmark  restored  their  conquests  to  Sweden. 

Authorities:  Among  secondary  works  dealing  with  the  diplomatic  and 
military  history  of  the  period,  founded  on  documents,  may  be  noted,  Philippso7i, 
Das  zeitalter  lyudwigs  des  Vierzehnten  ;  Filon,  La  France  et  I'Autriche  au  XVII* 
Siecle  :  Lonchay,  La  rivalite  de  la  France  et  de  I'Espagne  aux  Pays-Bas  (1635- 
1700)  ;  Lef^vre-Pontalis,  Jean  de  Witt ;  Groen  van  Prinsterer  and  Combes,  cited 
under  Lecture  10 ;  Baillon,  Henriette  Anne  d'Angleterre,  duchesse  d'Orleans  ; 
Forneron,  Louise  de  Keroualle,  duchesse  de  Portsmouth;  Segur-Dupeyron,  Histoire 
des  n^gociations  Commercial es  et  maritimes  de  la  France  au  XVII  ieme  et  XVIII 
ieme  Siecle,  vol.  i  ;  Jusserand,  A  French  Ambassador  at  the  Court  of  Charles  II.  ; 
le  comtede  Cominges ;  Moiiy,  Louis  XIV.  et  le  Saint-Siege  :  I'ambassade  du  due  de 
Crequi  (1662-1665)  ;  Rousset,  Histoire  de  Louvois,  .4  vols.;  Peter,  DerKrieg  des 
Grossen  Kurfiirsten  gegen  Frankreich  (1672-1675)  ;  Depping,  Geschichte  des 
Krieges  der  Miinsterer  und  Coiner  im  Bundnisse  mit  Frankreich  gegen  Holland  ; 
Ennen,  Frankreich  und  der  Niederrhein,  2  vols.  ;  Guhrcrtter,  Kur-Mainz  in  der 
Epoche  von  1672  ;  Piepape,  Histoire  de  la  reunion  de  la  Franche-Comt^  a  la  France, 
2  vols.  ;  Roy,  Turenne,  sa  vie  et  les  institutions  militaires  de  son  temps  ;  Ramsay, 
Histoire  du  Vicomte  de  Turenne,  4  vols ;  Choppin,  Campagne  de  Turenne  en 
Alsace  ( 1674-75 )  ;  Campori,  Raimondo  Montecuccoli,la  sua  famiglia  e  i  suoi  tempi ; 
Michel,  Histoire  de  Vauban  ;  Mellion,  Vauban  ;  Ambert,  Le  Marechal  de  Vauban  ; 
Jal,  Abraham  Du  Quesne  et  la  marine  de  son  temps,  2  vols.,  and  Paulliat,  Louis 
XIV.  et  la  compagnie  des  Indes.  The  chief  primary  authorities  are  the  text  of 
the  treaties  in  Fast,  Les  grandes  traites  du  regne  de  Louis  XIV.  ;  Mignet,  N^gocia- 
tions  relatives  d,  la  succession  d'Espagne,  4  vols.  ;  Griffet,  Recueil  de  Lettres  pour 


Willii 


Frederick   lv(illia7n,  the  Great  Elector.  45 

servir  k  I'histoire  militaire  de  Louis  XIV.,  8  vols.;  Turenne,  Correspondance 
in^dite  avec  Le  Tellier  et  Louvois  ( 1652-72),  ed.  Barthelemy,  and  the  M^moiresof 
Turenne,  Montccuccoli  and  the  Marcchal  Gramont. 


LECTURE    18. 


FREDERICK  WILLIAM,  THE  GREAT  ELECTOR. 

The  scattered  nature  and  diverse  character  of  the  dominions  r-uled  by 
Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  Duke  of  Prussia, 
known  as  the  Great  Elector  (b.  1620,  succeeded  1640). 

In  1648  Brandenburg,  the  nucleus,  was  not  yet  entirely  evacuated  by 
the  Swedish  troops ;  Eastern  Pomerania  still  full  of  Swedes ;  Prussia 
only  held  in  feudal  subjection  to  Poland  ;  and  Cleves  garrisoned  by  the 
Dutch  ;  the  additional  territory  given  to  him  by  the  Treaties  of  West- 
phalia— Magdeburg,  Halberstadt,  Cammin  and  Minden. 

Contrast  between  the  policy  pursued  in  Brandenburg  and  in  the  rest 
of  Germany  during  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century:  the  importance 
of  the  reign  of  the  Great  Elector  ;  he  prepared  the  way  for  the  future 
greatness  of  the  House  of  HohenzoUern. 

The  Great  Elector's  national  policy  :  his  desire  to  hold  Prussia  free 
from  Polish  suzerainty  the  motive  for  his  actions  in  the  Northern  War  of 
1656-60  ;  that  relief,  granted  by  the  Treaty  of  Wehlau  (1657),  confirmed 
by  the  Treaty  of  Oliva  (1660);  his  desire  to  get  the  Dutch  garrison  out 
of  Cleves  the  motive  for  aiding  the  Dutch  in  1672  ;  his  desire  to  con- 
quer Western  Pomerania  the  motive  for  joining  the  coalition  against 
Louis  XIV. 

To  carry  out  his  schemes  the  Great  Elector,  like  Louis  XIV.,  created 
and  organized  a  standing  army  and  looked  solely  to  national  interests. 

In  1666  he  finallj^  divided  the  Juliers- Cleves  dominions,  and  took 
Cleves,  Ravensberg  and  Mark  ;  in  the  same  year  he  occupied  Magde- 
burg, which  afterwards  legally  devolved  on  him  according  to  the 
Treaties  of  Westphalia,  on  the  death  of  Augustus  of  Saxony  in  1680. 

Part  taken  by  the  Great  Elector  in  the  wars  against  Louis  XIV  :  in 
1672  he  aided  the  Hwtrh.,  but  made  peace  in  1673  ;  in  1674  he  joined  the 


46  Frederick   William,   the  Great  Elector, 

coalition  against  France,  and  was  attacked  by  Sweden  ;  he  defeated 
the  Swedes  at  FehrbelUn  (28  June,  1675),  took  Stettin  (1677),  and 
Stralsund  (1678)  ;  but  by  the  Treaty  of  Saint- Germain-en-L,aye  (29 
June,  1679),  he  had  to  restore  all  Western  Pomerania  except  a  small 
district. 

The  Great  Elector  and  the  Emperor  :  his  German  policy  ;  a  member 
of  the  lycague  of  the  Rhine  ;  strife  for  the  leadership  of  the  Protestant 
princes  with  Saxony  ;  his  friendship  with  Denmark  ;  his  attitude  to- 
wards Poland  ;  his  claims  to  Jagernsdorf  in  Silesia,  confiscated  by  Fer- 
dinand II.  in  1623,  and  to  I^iegnitz  on  death  of  the  last  duke  (1675), 
compromised  in  1686  by  the  Emperor  Leopold's  ceding  to  him  Schwebus 
in  Silesia. 

The  internal  policy  of  the  Great  Elector  :  his  struggle  for  absolutism 
and  centralized  administration  with  the  nobility,  united  in  their  pro- 
vincial Estates,  and  with  the  municipal  rights  of  the  cities  ;  local  jeal- 
ousy of  the  different  provinces. 

i.  In  Brandenburg  :  the  Estates  were  enfeebled  and  could  not 
meet  without  being  convoked  ;  no  Estates  of  the  province, 
only  provincial  Estates  in  the  Old,  and  New,  Mark, 
ii.  In  Cleves :    the   nobility  I^utheran  and   opposed  to  the  Cal- 
vinist  Elector  ;  their  alliance  with  the  Dutch  ;  the  adminis- 
tration in  the  hands  of  the  Estates  ;  the  resistance  of  the 
nobility  overthrown  by  the  use  of  troops  in  1651  and  1654  ; 
the  administration  taken  into  the  hands  of  the  Elector, 
iii.    In    Prussia  :    the    nobility   with   full    feudal    power   taxing 
and  ruling  their  dominions  ;  their  friendship  with  and  imi- 
tation of  the  Polish  nobility  ;  independent  attitude  of  the 
Estates,  supported  by  the  city  of  Konigsberg ;  the  Great 
Elector's  struggle  for  the  recognition  of  his  sovereignty 
(1660-63);  the  execution  of  Kalkstein  (1670). 
The  keynote  of  the  struggle  the  definition  of  the  position  of  the 
Elector  and  the  Estates  :  the  main  battle  over  taxation ;  in  Branden- 
tmJ^  (1653),  in  Cleves  (1661),  in  Prussia  (1663)  the  right  of  self-taxa- 
tion by  the  Estates  was  acknowledged  ;  but  in  Cleves  from  1670,  in 
Brandenburg  from  1678,  in  Prussia  and  in  Magdeburg  from  1682  the 
direct  taxes  were  recognized  as  permanent,  and  future  taxes  imposed 
without  asking  the  Estates  ;  excise  introduced  (1677). 


Louis  XIV.  and   William  III.  i^i 

In  return  for  the  subordination  of  the  nobles,  the  Great  Elector  rec- 
ognized serfdom  on  their  properties  and  re-established  it  in  Prussia. 

To  carry  out  his  ambitious  hopes  for  his  House,  the  Great  Elector 
saw  that  Brandenburg  must  be  a  military  power  :  his  efforts  to  create  a 
standing  army  ;  at  his  accession  it  consisted  of  1,200  men,  at  his  death 
of  30,000. 

Material  progress  encouraged  by  the  Great  Elector :  agriculture  im- 
proved ;  marshes  drained  ;  canal  made  from  the  Elbe  to  the  Oder  ; 
growth  of  Berlin  ;  welcome  of  more  than  20,000  Huguenots  after  the 
Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

Death  of  the  Great  Elector  (28  April,  1688):  comparison  between  his 
aims  and  methods  and  those  of  Louis  XIV. 

Authorities :  In  English  see  Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  the  Great,  vols,  i, 
2,  and  TuUle,  History  of  Prussia,  vol.  i.  Among  secondary  histories  consult 
Berner,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Staats  ;  Stenzel^  Geschichte  des  preussischen 
Staats,  vols,  i,  2;  Droysen,  Geschichte  der  preussischen  Politik,  vol.  3;  Ratike,  Zwolf 
Biicher  preussischer  Geschichte  ;  Treitschke^  Deutsche  Geschichte,  vol.  i  ;  Philipp- 
son,  Geschichte  des  preussischer  Staatswesens,  vol.  i ;  Bornhak,  Geschichte  des 
preussischen  Verwaltungsrechts.  vol.  r  ;  Isaacsohn,  Geschichte  des  preussischen 
Beamtenthums,  vol.  2  ;  Cavaignac,  La  Formation  de  la  Prusse  contemporaine,  vol.  i; 
Hedestrom,  Die  Beziehungen  zwischen  Russland  und  Brandenburg  wahrend  des  ersten 
nordischen  Krieges  (1655-60) ;  Musedeck,  Die  Feldziige  desGrossen  Kurfursten  in 
Pommern  (1675-77)  I  and  Peter,  cited  under  Lecture  17.  The  best  biography  is 
Erdmannsdorffer,  Der  Grosse  Kurfiirst.  The  primary  authority  is  the  collec- 
tion, edited  by  Erdmannsdorffer  and  others,  of  the  Urkunden  und  Actenstiicke  zur 
Geschichte  des  Kurfiirsten  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  Brandenburg. 


LECTURE   19. 


THE  FOREIGN  POLICY  OF  LOUIS  XIV  :  TO  THE  TREATIES  OF  RYS- 

WICK,   1697. 

The  rivalry  between  William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Louis  XIV. : 
the  character  of  William  III.;  his  adherence  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Bal- 
ance of  Power  ;  the  question  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

The  position  of  William  III.  in  the  United  Provinces :  he  was  pro- 


48  Foreign  Policy  of  Louis  XIV.,  i6y8-88. 

claimed  hereditary  Captain-  and  Admiral-General  (1674),  and  hereditary 
Stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zealand  and  Utrecht  (1674),  and  of  Gelderland 
and  Overyssel  (1675)  ;  his  chief  agent,  Fagel,  Pensionary  of  Holland 
(1672-88)  ;  after  the  Treaties  of  Nimeguen  the  republican  party  raised 
opposition  to  him;  Heinsius  (b.  1641,  d.  1720J  elected  Pensionary  of  Hol- 
land (March,  1689). 

The  position  of  L^ouis  XIV.  after  the  Treaties  of  Nimeguen  ;  his  re- 
lations with  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  of  England  ;  the  *'  chambers  of 
reunion  ' '  declared  certain  towns  and  districts  belonging  to  the  Elector- 
Palatine,  the  Elector  of  Treves,  the  Bishop  of  Spires  and  the  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg,  with  the  duchy  of  Deux-Ponts  (Zw^eibriicken),  a  posses- 
sion of  the  King  of  Sweden,  to  be  fiefs  of  the  Three  Bishoprics,  Alsace 
or  Franche  Comte  ;  seizure  of  Strasburg  and  purchase  of  Casale  (30 
Sept.,  1681)  ;  secret  alliance  between  the  Ernperor,  William  III.,  Spain 
and  Sweden  (i 681)  negotiated  b}^  Ernest,  Duke  of  Hanover,  to  preserve 
the  arrangements  made  at  Nimeguen  in  1678  ;  prevented  from  acting 
by  the  invasion  of  the  Turks  and  the  siege  of  Vienna  (1683)  5  capture  of 
Luxemburg  (1684)  ;  the  Imperial  Diet  made  a  truce  of  twenty  years 
with  Louis  XIV.,  and  consented  to  the  reunions  (15  Aug.,  1684). 

Formation  of  the  League  of  Augsburg  (17  July,  1686)  between  the 
allies  of  168 1.  joined  by  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  the  Elec- 
tor of  Bavaria  and  others. 

Louis  XIV.  and  the  Mediterranean  :  Du  Quesne  bombarded  Tripoli 
(1681)  and  Algiers  (1682-83)  and  Genoa  (1684)  ;  Seignelay's  work  in 
improving  the  French  navy. 

Louis  XIV.  and  Pope  Innocent  XI.:  the  ambassador's  right  of  asy- 
lum ;  occupation  of  Avignon  (1688). 

Louis  XIV.  and  the  administration  :  Colbert  succeeded  by  Le  Pele- 
tier  (1683-89),  and  Pontchartrain  (1689-99)  ;  Louvois  by  Barbezieux 
(1691-1701)  ;  Colbert- Croissy  assisted  by  Colbert-Torcy  (1689)  ^^^  suc- 
ceeded by  him  (1696). 

Effect  of  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  on  Europe, 
especially  on  England  and  Germany. 

Outbreak  of  war  (1688)  :  its  immediate  causes  ;  (i)  the  Palatine  Suc- 
cession (1685)  ;  pretensions  of  Louis  XIV.  on  behalf  of  the  Duchess 
of  Orleans  ;  (2)  the  electorate  of  Cologne,  France  supporting  Cardinal 


War  of  the  League  of  Augsburg ^  1688-97,  49 

von  Fiirstenberg  and  the  Emperor,  Joseph  Clement  of  Bavaria ;  devas- 
tation of  the  Palatinate,  occupation  of  Bonn,  Cologne,  Mayence  and 
Treves  and  capture  of  Philipsburg  (1689). 

The  situation  changed  by  the  Revolution  of  1688  in  England,  by 
which  William  III.  became  ruler  of  England  ;  effect  on  the  position  of 
Louis  XIV.;  despatch  of  an  army  and  a  fleet  to  support  James  II.  in 
Ireland. 

Campaign  of  1690  :  De  Tourville  defeated  the  English  and  the  Dutch 
off  Beachy  Head  (10  July),  but  James  II.  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne  (11  July),  and  left  Ireland  ;  Luxembourg  (b.  1628,  d.  1695) 
defeated  the  Prince  of  Waldeck  at  Fleurus  (i  July,  1690),  and  Catinat 
(b.  1637,  d.  1712),  the  Duke  of  Savoy  at  Staffarda  (17  Aug.,  1690). 

The  campaign  of  1691  :  preparations  of  Louis  XIV.  for  the  invasion 
of  England  ;  capture  of  Mons  (9  April)  by  the  king  ;  of  Nice  (2  April) 
by  Catinat  ;  of  Urgel  by  Nop.illes ;  death  of  Louvois. 

The  campaign  of  1692  :  Russell  defeated  De  Tourville  in  the  battle 
of  La  Hogue  (29  May) ;  end  of  the  French  supremacy  in  the  Channel : 
regular  naval  war  abandoned  for  frigate  fighting  and  privateering  ; 
Duguay-Trouin  and  Jean  Bart ;  the  invasion  of  England  abandoned  ; 
capture  of  Namur  by  the  king  (5  June)  ;  Luxembourg  defeated  William 
III.  at  Steenkirk  (3  August)  ;  the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  Prince  Eugene 
invaded  Dauphin^. 

The  campaign  of  1693  •  Luxembourg  defeated  William  III.  at  Lan- 
den  or  Neerwinden  (29  July)  and  took  Charleroi  (11  Oct.);  Catinat  de- 
feated the  Duke  of  Savoy  and  Prince  Eugene  at  the  Marsaglia  (4  Oct.); 
Rosas  captured  by  Noailles  (9  June) ;  Pondicherry ,  the  chief  French  set- 
tlement in  India,  taken  by  the  Dutch. 

Exhaustion  of  France  :  feebleness  of  the  ministers ;  depreciation  of 
the  currency. 

Defensive  campaign  of  1694  •  death  of  Luxembourg  (4  Jan.,  1695)  ; 
William  III.  recaptured  Namur  (4  Aug.,  1695);  Louis  XIV.  made 
peace  (29  June,  1696)  with  Victor  Amadeus  II.  of  Savoy,  who  recov- 
ered Pignerol  and  Casale,  and  whose  daughter  married  the  eldest  grand- 
son of  Louis  ;  he  declared  himself  the  ally  of  France. 

Negotiations  for  peace  opened  at  Ryswick  (May,  1697):  Vendome's 
capture  of  Barcelona  (10  Aug.). 

The  Treaties  of  Ryswick  signed  20  Sept.  and  30  Oct.,  1697  • 


50  The  Treaties  of  Rysivick,  i6gy. 

i.  I/)uis  XIV.  recognized  William  III.  as  King  of  England,  but 

refused  to  expel  James  II.  from  France, 
ii.  The  Dutch  restored  Pondicherry  and  were  allowed  to  garrison 

the  frontier  towns  of  Belgium  as  "  barrier  fortresses." 
iii.  Louis  XIV.  restored  to  the  Empire  Philipsburg,  Breisach  and 
Freiburg,  the  fortresses  held  by  France  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  all  places  adjudged  to  him  or  seized  by  him 
since  the  Treaties  of  Nimeguen,  except  St];;§sburg,  Longwy, 
Sarrelouis  and  Landau. 
iv.  Leopold,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  restored  to  his  father's  dominions, 
with  all  fortresses  dismantled. 
Position  of  the  powers  of  Europe  at  the  Treaties  of  Ryswick  awaiting 
the  settlement  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

Authorities  :  Of  the  secondary  histories  cited  for  Lectures  i6  and  17,  Vol- 
taire, Gaillardin,  Clement,  lyC  Gouvernement  de  Louis  XIV,  de  1683-89  ;  Rousset, 
Michaud,  Bausset,  Lemontey,  Martin ^Philippson,  Filon,Lonchay,  Segur-Dupeyron^ 
vol.  ii.,  Ennen,  Roy,  Michel,  Mellion,  Ambert  and  Jal  are  still  valuable,  and  of  the 
primary  authorities  Louis  XIV.,  Dreyss,  Boislisle,  Depping,  Foucauit,  Cos- 
nac.  La  Fare,  Bussy-Rabutin,  Madame  de  Sevigne  and  Griffet.  To  the  second- 
ary authorities  should  be  added  for  this  period  Macatilay,  History  of  England, 
vols.  1-4  ;  Sirtemade  Grovestins,  Guillaume  III.  et  Louis  XIV.,  8  vols.  ;  Wolseley, 
Life  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  to  the  Accession  of  Queen  Anne  ;  Noailles,  His- 
toire  de  Madame  de  Maintenon  et  des  principaux  dvenements  du  regne  de  Louis 
XIV.,  4  vols.;  Geffroy,  Madame  de  Maintenon  ;  Wilson,  James  II.  and  the  Duke 
of  Berwick  ;  Reuss,  L'Alsace  au  XVII.  ieme  siecle  ;  Legrelle,  Louis  XIV.  et  Stras- 
bourg ;  Gerin,  Louis  XIV.  et  le  Saint-Siege  ;  Schulte,  Markgraf  Ludwig  von  Baden 
und  der  Reichskrieg  gegen  Frankreich,  2  vols.;  Delarbre,  Tourville  et  la  marine  de 
son  temps  ;  Carutti,  Storia  del  regno  di  Vittorio  Amedio  II.,  and  D' Haussonville, 
La  Duchesse  de  Bourgogne  et  1'  alliance  savoyarde  sous  Louis  XIV.,  and  Histoire 
de  la  reunion  de  la  Lorraine  a  la  France,  4  vols.  To  the  primary  authorities 
add  State  Papers  and  Correspondence  illustrative  of  the  social  and  political  state  of 
Europe,  1688-1715,  ed.  Kem,ble ;  Lexington  Papers,  1694-98,  ed.  Sutton;  Span- 
heim.  Relation  sur  la  cour  de  France  en  1690  ;  Madame  de  Maintenon,  Correspond- 
ance  generale,and  CBuvres,  ed.  by  Lavallee,  12  vols.;  the  Letters  of  the  Duchesse 
d*  Orleans,  known  as  Madame  Palatine,  ed.  by  Bodemann,  2  vols,  translated  and 
^d.Jaegle,  3  vols.;  Catinat,  Memoires  et  Correspondance,  3  vols.;  Dumont  von 
Carlscroon,  Memoires  politiques  pour  servir  a  la  parfaite  intelligence  d-e  I'histoire 
de  la  paix  de  Ryswick,  4  vols  ;  and  the  documents  of  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  ed. 
Fritsch  ;  the  Memoires  of  Mdlle.  de  Lafayette,  Madame  de  Caylus,  the  Abbe 
Choisy,  and  Torcy,  and  the  Journal  of  Dangeau,  vols.  1-6. 


The  Siege  of  Vieyina,  1683,  51 


I^ECTURE    20. 


V      o ; 


THE  SIEGE  OF  VIENNA  BY  THE  TURKS,  1683:    POLAND  UNDER 
JOHN  SOBIESKI. 

The  Emperor  I^opold  I.  (1658-1705):  his  character  and  his  govern- 
ment. 

The  Emperor  Leopold  I.  and  Hungary  :  his  efforts  (i)  to  extirpate 
Calvinism,  (2)  to  destroy  local  independence,  in  the  portion  of  Hungary 
left  to  him  ;  the  situation  after  the  Treaty  of  Vasvar  (1664);  the  con- 
spiracy of  1670  ;  the  office  of  Palatine  abolished  and  a  policy  of  relig- 
ious persecution  and  Germanization  adopted  ;  the  insurrection  of  T6- 
koli  (1675-79)  encouraged  by  Louis  XIV.  to  embarrass  the  Emperor ; 
effect  of  Western  on  Eastern  European  politics  ;  the  Treaty  of  Nime- 
guen  (1678)  followed  by  the  Diet  of  CEdensberg  (1681),  by  which  the 
office  of  Palatine  was  restored,  arbitrary  taxes  abolished,  all  offices 
thrown  open  to  Magyars  and  liberty  of  worship  promised  to  the  Protest- 
ants ;  Paul  Esterhazy  chosen  Palatine  to  the  disgust  of  Tokoli. 

The  Emperor  Leopold  and  Transylvania  ;  attitude  of  that  province  to 
the  Turks  ;  on  the  death  of  George  Rakoczy  II.  (1660)  Michael  Apafy 
appointed  Prince  of  Transylvania  ;  recognized  by  both  Emperor  and 
Sultan  by  the  Truce  of  Vasvar  (1664),  but  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Sultan. 

The  Turks  declared  Tokoli  Prince  of  Hungary  (1682),  and  under  com- 
mand of  the  brother-in-law  of  Ahmad  Kiuprili,  Kara  Mustapha,  (Grand 
Vizier  since  1676),  marched  on  Vienna  (1683);  the  siege  of  Vienna 
(March-Sept.,  1683)  ;  its  significance  in  history  ;  help  demanded  by 
the  Emperor  from  other  states  ;  heroic  defense  of  Vienna  under  Ernest 
Riidiger  von  Starhemberg  ;  appeal  for  the  help  of  John  Sobieski,  King 
of  Poland  ;  attempt  of  Louis  XIV.  to  isolate  the  Emperor. 

John  Sobieski  (b.  1629)  elected  King  of  Poland  (21  May,  1674)  ;  feeble 
reign  of  Michael  Koributh  Vichnevetski  (1669-74)  \  Sobieski's  diffi- 
culties in  Poland  since  the  Treaty  of  Zuravna  (27  Oct.,  1676);  his 
treaties  with  Russia  and  the  Dutch  ;  his  fame  as  a  general  ;  his  desire 
for  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  ;  his  friendship  with  Pope  Innocent  XI.; 
his  disputes  with  Louis  XIV. ;  his  determination  to  come  to  the  help 
of  the  Emperor  with  the  Polish  army. 


52  The  War  with  the  Turks,  1684.-98. 

John  Sobieski,  with  Charles  V.,  Duke  of  Lorraine  (b.  1643,  d.  1690), 
in  command  of  the  Austrian  army,  defeated  the  Turks  in  their  camp 
(12  Sept.,  1683)  and  raised  the  siege  of  Vienna  ;  pursuit  of  the  Turks ; 
capture  of  Gran  (24  Oct.)  ;  execution  of  Kara  Mustapha  (25  Dec, 
1683). 

War  with  the  Tux^s  :  first  phase  (1684-89);  excitement  caused  in 
Christendom  by  the  siege  of  Vienna  ;  the  ' '  Holy  I^eague -^ ^(g^\AjListria, 
Poland,  Venice  and  Malta,  formed  by  Pope  Innocent  XL^the  Venetians 
under  Mor^ini  gDjicju^ed  the  ^^reaT and  AthensXi 684-87)  :  the  Poles 
in  Moldavia  (1686);  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  captured  Buda'^^  SepTT^' 
1686);'  he  and  Louis  of  Baden  (b.  5655,4^  iTOTV^efeated  the  Turks  at 
Mohacs  (12  Aug.,  i6§7)7^ffi?^26saries^epb^a  Muhammad  IV.  and 
placed  Sulaiman  II.  on  the  throne  (8  Nov.,  1687)  ;  Michael  Apafy, 
Prince  of  Transylvania^^declarecl  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Emperor  (28 
July,  1686)  ;  capti'ir3l)lr]Be1grkde|&^gept~,  1688)  ;  Louis  of  Baden  in- 
vaded Servia  ;  the  Russian  attack  on  the  Crimea  ;  Mustapha  Kiuprili, 
brother  of  Ahmad  Kiuprili,  appointed  Grand  Vizier  (Sept.,  1689). 

The  Emperor  Leopold's  actions  on  the  conquest  of  Hungary  :  mas- 
sacre of  the  friends  of  Tokoli  ;  the  * '  butchery  ' '  at  Eperies  ;  the  crown 
of  Hungary  made  hereditary,  instead  of  elective,  in  the  House  of  Haps- 
burg  (31  Oct.,  1687);  abolition  of  the  coronation  oath  and  of  the  right 
of  insurrection  ;  persecution  of  the  Protestants. 

War  with  the  Turks  :  second  phase  (1689-91);  the  Emperor  forced  to 
detach  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  to  fight  Louis  XIV.  on  the  Rhine  ;  Louis 
of  Baden  in  command  against  the  Turks  ;  Mustapha  Kiuprili  appointed 
Tokoli  Prince  of  Transylvania  and  recaptured  Belgrade  (1690);  acces- 
sion of  Ahmad  II. ;  Louis  of  Baden  defeated  the  Turks  at  Szalankemen 
(19  Aug.,  1 691)  ;  Mustapha  Kiuprili  killed  ;  Transylvania  conquered  ; 
the  Hapsburgs  recognized  as  Princes  of  Transylvania  (Dec.  1691)  ; 
John  Sobieski's  last  campaign  ;  his  march  to  the  Pruth  (1691)  ;  Louis 
of  Baden  sent  to  the  Rhine  ;  failure  of  the  negotiations  for  peace. 

War  with  the  Turks  :  third  phase  {i6()i-(^d>')  ;  unimportant  operations 
(1691-95)  ;  accession  of  Mustapha  II.  (1695)  ;  he  assumed  command  of 
the  Turkish  army  ;  his  invasion  of  Hungary  and  capture  of  many  for- 
tresses ;  confusion  caused  by  the  death  of  John  Sobieski ;  Peter  the 
Great  captured  Azov  (28  July,   1696)  ;    Prince  Eugene  destroyed  the 


The  Treaty  of  Carlawitz,  i6gg,  53 

Turkish  army  in  the  battle  of  the  Zenta  (11  Sept.,   1697)  ;   Hussain 
Kiuprili  appointed  Grand  Vizier  ;  the  Turks  forced  to  sue  for  peace. 

Reasons  which  induced  the  Emperor  Leopold  to  make  peace  with  the 
Turks ;  the  imminence  of  the  falling-in  of  the  Spanish  Succession ;  medi- 
ation of  the  English  and  Dutch. 

Treaty  of  Carlowitz  (26  Jan.,  1699)  :     • 

i.  The  Emperor  obtained  Hungary,  except  the  Banat  of  Temes- 
var  ;  the  whole  of  Transylvania  ;    Croatia  ;   and  Slavonia  as 
far  as  the  Save, 
ii.  Venice  obtained  Dalmatia  and  the  Morea. 
iii.   Poland  recovered  Podolia  with  Kaminietz. 
By  separate  treaty  (3  July,  1700)  Russia  obtained  Azov. 
Since  the  siege  of  Vienna  the  Turks  have  receded  in  Europe  :  the 
Treaty  of  Carlowitz  marks  the  first  stage  of  their  decline. 

The  condition  of  Poland  under  John  Sobieski :  rivalry  between  the 
Poles  and  Lithuanians  ;  the  factious  nobility  ;  SobiCvSki's  schemes  for 
reform  rejected  ;  he  was  without  subsidies  or  support ;  attitude  of  foreign 
powers  ;  Sobieski's  attempt  to  abdicate  ;  approach  of  civil  war  ;  Sobieski's 
advancement  of  civilization  in  Poland  ;  death  of  John  Sobieski  (17  June, 
1696). 

Election  of  the  Elector  Augustus  of  Saxony  to  be  King  of  Poland 
(i  June,  1697). 

Authorities :  Among  small  books  Leger,  Autriche-Hongrie  ;  Creasy,  Otto- 
man Turks,  and  Morfilly  Story  of  Poland,  as  before,  with  Maiden,  History  and  Con- 
sequences of  the  Defeat  of  the  Turks  before  Vienna  in  1683.  As  secondary 
authorities  see  Co:ve,  History  of  the  House  of  Austria,  4  vols.  ;  Krones,  Hand- 
buch  der  Geschichte  CEsterreichs  :  Mailath,  Geschichte  der  CEsterreichischen 
Kaiserstaats  ;  Michiels,  Histoire  secrete  du  gouvernement  autrichien  ;  Gerando,  La 
Transylvanie  ;  Teutsch,  Geschichte  der  Siebenbiirger  Sachsen  ;  Klopp,  Das  Jahr 
1683  und  der  folgende  grosse  Turkenkrieg  bis  zum  Frieden  von  Carlowitz  ;  Thur- 
heim,  Feldmarschall  Ernst  RUdiger,  Graf  Stahremberg  ;  Roder  von  Diersburg, 
Des  Markgrafen  Ludwig  Wilhelm  von  Baden  Feldziige  wider  die  Tiirken,  2  vols.  ; 
Ameth,  Prinz  Eugen  von  Savoyen,  3  vols.  ;  Bntzzo,  Francesco  Morosini  e  la  con- 
questa  della  Morea  ;  Von  Hammer,  Histoire  de  I'Empire  Ottoman,  vols.  12,  13  ; 
Coyer,  Histoire  de  Jean  Sobieski,  3  vols.,  and  Salvandy,  Histoire  de  Pologne  avant 
et  sous  Jean  Sobieski,  3  vols,,  are  old-fashioned  and  do  not  give  sources,  but  inter- 
esting ;  a  more  recent  book  is  Waliszezvski,  Maryzienka,  being  a  sketch  of  the  life 
of  Marie  d' Arquien,  wife  of  John  Sobieski. 


54  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great. 

I^ECTURB  21. 


RUSSIA  UNDER  PETER  THE  GREAT. 

Condition  of  Russia  under  the  first  Romanovs,  Michael  (1613-45) 
and  Alexis  (1645-76)  :  internal  and  foreign  policy  of  the  Tsars. 

The  reign  of  Feodor  Alexievitch,  eldest  son  of  Alexis  Romanov 
(1676-82). 

Peter  Alexievitch  (b.  9  June,  1672),  youngest  son  of  Alexis,  recog- 
nized as  Tsar  (7  May,  1682) ;  the  rising  of  the  Streltsi  at  Moscow  ; 
Ivan  v.,  his  half  brother,  proclaimed  joint  Tsar  with  Peter  (28  May, 
1682)  ;  Princess  Sophia  made  Regent. 

The  government  of  Sophia  and  Vasili  Galitzin  (1682-89)  :  confirma- 
tion of  the  Peace  of  Kardis  with  Sweden  and  the  Treaty  of  Androus- 
sovo ;  Galitzin's  expedition  against  the  Crimean  Tartars  (1687-89); 
overthrow  of  Sophia  ;  Peter  assumed  the  government (i7Sept.,  1689). 

The  boyhood  of  Peter  the  Great :  his  education  ;  his  character  ;  his 
passion  for  boat-building ;  his  foreign  friends  ;  Lefort ;  his  amusements 
and  occupations  ;  his  longing  for  a  navy  ;  condition  of  Russian  com- 
merce ;  Archangel ;  the  Baltic  ;  the  government  of  the  boyars ;  by 
death  of  Ivan  V.,  Peter  became  sole  Tsar  (8  Feb.,  1696). 

Peter  the  Great's  first  war ;  the  capture  of  Azov  (28  July,  1696)  ; 
by  treaty  with  the  Turks  Azov  granted  to  Russia  (3  July,  1700). 

Peter  the  Great's  visit  to  Western  Europe  (1697-98)  :  its  political  re- 
sults ;  its  effect  on  Peter's  character. 

Destruction  of  the  Streltsi  (1698)  :  first  steps  taken  for  the  formation 
of  a  regular  army  and  navy  ;  forcible  introduction  of  Western  usages. 

First  appearance  of  Russia  in  European  politics  :  negotiations  be- 
tween Augustus  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  Frederick, 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  and  Peter 
the  Great  for  an  attack  on  Sweden  ;  motives  of  the  attack  ;  Peter's  de- 
sire for  a  port  on  the  Baltic. 

The  schemes  of  Patkul :  on  behalf  of  the  Livonian  nobility  he  offered 
lyivonia  and  Esthonia  to  Augustus,  Ingria  and  Carelia  to  Peter,  at  an 
interview  between  the  two  monarchs  (July,  1698). 


Russia  under  Peter  the  Great,  55 

Peter  the  Great's  invasion  of  Ingria  :  the  Russians  defeated  by 
Charles  XII.  at  the  battle  of  Narva  (13  Nov.,  1700)  ;  Charles  XII. 
marched  into  Poland. 

Capture  of  Noteburgby  the  Russians  (22  Oct.,  1702),  and  foundation 
of  St.  Petersburg  by  Peter  the  Great :  occupation  of  Ingria  and  Ca- 
relia  ;  capture  of  Narva  (20  Aug.,  1704). 

The  Tsaritsa  Catherine  (b.  1684) :  private  marriage  (1707)  ;  public 
marriage  (1712)  ;  her  influence  over  Peter;  Menshikov  (b.  1672;. 

Closeness  of  the  alliance  between  Peter  and  Augustus  I.  :  the  devasta- 
tion of  Livonia  ;  the  Swedes  defeated  at  Kalisch  (29  Oct.,  1706)  ;  Au- 
gustus made  peace  with  Charles  XII.  at  Altranstadt  (1706)  ;  Peter  left 
without  allies  ;  the  war  in  Lithuania  ;  fortification  of  Moscow. 

Charles  XII.  invaded  the  Ukraine  (1708)  :  treachery  of  Mazeppa, 
Hetman  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Dnieper  ;  the  battle  of  Liesna  (9  Oct., 
1708)  ;  the  winter  of  1708-9  ;  destruction  of  the  Swedish  army  at  Pol- 
tava (8  July,  1709) ;  escape  of  Charles  XII.;  importance  of  the  victory; 
Russia  takes  rank  with  European  nations  ;  the  result  of  a  trained  and 
disciplined  army  ;  immediate  effects  of  the  victory  ;  Augustus,  aided 
by  Peter,  resolved  to  recover  the  Polish  throne  and  to  conquer  Livonia ; 
the  Russians  made  safe  in  Ingria  and  Carelia,  with  an  outlet  to  the  Bal- 
tic ;  failure  of  the  proposed  marriage  between  the  sister  of  the  Emperor 
and  the  Tsarevitch  Alexis,  who  married  Princess  Charlotte  of  Bruns- 
wick-Wolfenbiittel  (25  Oct.,  1711);  league  of  Russia,  Denmark  and 
Prussia  formed  against  Sweden  ;  by  Treaty  of  Marienwerder  (i  Nov., 
1709),  Elbing  promised  to  Prussia. 

The  partition  of  Poland  suggested  by  Frederick  of  Prussia  and  Au- 
gustus to  Peter  the  Great :  Frederick  wanted  Royal  Prussia  ;  Augustus 
was  not  unwilling  to  give  it,  as  well  as  White  Russia  to  Peter,  if  they 
would  guarantee  him  the  rest  of  Poland  as  an  hereditary  monarchy. 

Peter  the  Great's  internal  reforms  :  the  new  administration  ;  the  Privy 
Council  in  the  place  of  the  Council  of  Boyars ;  the  new  departments  ; 
formation  of  the  eight  governments  ;  the  taxes  and  financial  system  ; 
commerce  and  monopolies  ;  encouragement  of  foreigners  ;  ecclesiastical 
reforms  ;  reformation  of  the  monasteries  ;  the  Senate  ;  unpopularity  of 
these  changes  ;  local  insurrections  and  discontent. 

Continuance  of  the  war  with  Sweden  :  capture  of  Viborg  (21  June, 


56  Russia  under  Peter  the  Great. 

1710),  of  Riga  (July)  and  of  Revel  (September)  ;  occupation  of  I^ivonia 
and  Esthonia  ;  marriage  of  Peter's  niece  Anne  to  the  Duke  of  Courland  ; 
occupation  of  Courland. 

The  Turks  declared  war  against  Peter  the  Great  (i  Dec,  17 10)  ;  Con- 
stantine  Brancovano,  Hospodar  of  Wallachia,  and  Demetrius  Cantemir, 
Hospodar  of  Moldavia,  invited  him  to  help  them  to  throw  off  their  sub- 
jection to  the  Sultan  and  to  become  the  liberator  of  the  Romanian 
Christians ;  Peter  the  Great  invaded  Moldavia  ;  surrounded  by  the 
Turks  on  the  Pruth  ;  Catherine  came  to  his  help  ;  by  treaty  of  23  July, 
171 1,  Peter  agreed  to  surrender  Azov,  which  was  given  up  to  the  Turks 
in  1712. 

The  campaigns  in  Pomerania  (1711-13)  :  sequestration  of  Stettin. 

Peter  the  Great's  position  at  the  time  of  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht. 

The  greatness  of  the  work  Peter  had  done  for  Russia. 

Authorities:  Of  small  books  the  most  readable  is  still,  despite  some  mis- 
takes and  misconceptions,  Voltaire^,  Histoire  de  1' empire  de  Russie  sous  Pierre  le 
Giand,  which  should  be  checked  by  the  chapters  on  his  reign  in  Morfill,  Story  of 
Russia,  and  Rarnbaud,  Histoire  de  la  Russie,  translated  by  L.  B.  Lang,  2  vols. 
The  best  secondary  authorities  are  Schuyler^  Peter  the  Great ;  Waliszewski, 
Pierre  le  Grand  ;  Bruckner,  Peter  der  Grosse,  and  Hemnajin,  Russland  unter  Peter 
der  Grosse  ;  more  special  works  are  Merimee,  Cosaques  d'autrefois,  Stenka  Razin  ; 
Wernich,  Der  Livlander  Johann  Reinhold  von  Patkul  und  seine  Zeitgenossen, 
and  Posselt,  Der  General  und  Admiral  Franz  Lefort,  sein  I^eben  und  seine  Zeit.  2 
vols.  The  correspondence  of  English,  French  and  German  diplomatists,  as  well 
as  other  papers  bearing  on  the  reign  of  Peter,  are  to  be  found  in  the  "Sbornik,"  the 
collection  of  documents,  published  by  the  Imperial  Historical  Society  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. 


LECTURE  22. 


CHARLES   XII.  OF   SWEDEN. 


The  reign  of  Charles  XI.  of  Sweden  ( 1660-97)  :  during  his  minority 
and  the  government  of  his  mother,  Hedwiga  of  Holstein-Gottorp, 
peace  was  made  with  Poland,  Denmark  and  Russia  (1660-61),   and 


Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  57 

Sweden  joined  the  Triple  Alliance  (1668)  ;  the  political  position  in 
Sweden  ;  the  government  of  the  nobles,  who  even  granted  to  them- 
selves the  crown  lands. 

Charles  XI.  assumed  the  government  (1672)  :  his  alliance  with 
France;  his  invasion  of  Brandenburg;  attacked  by  Denmark  and  the 
Dutch;  his  navy  was  defeated  by  Cornelius  Tromp  (11  June,  1675  y  and 
his  army  by  the  Great  Elector  at  Fehrbellin  (18  June,  1675);  he  de- 
feated the  Danes  at  Lund  (11  Dec,  1675),  but  lost  all  Pomerania,  and 
his  fleet  was  destroyed  by  Admiral  Juel  (11  June,  1678);  by  the  Treaty 
of  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  (29  June,  1679)  he  recovered  all  his  lost  ter- 
ritory by  the  influence  of  Louis  XIV.;  disgusted  at  the  action  of  the 
"chambre  de  reunion"  of  Louis  XIV.  with  regard  to  his  duchy  of 
Deux- Fonts,  he  entered  the  secret  alliance  against  Louis  XIV.  (1681); 
joined  the  League  of  Augsburg  (1686);  and  aided  the  Dutch  with 
6,000  men  (1688-97). 

The  Revolution  of  1682  :  the  power  of  the  Senate  had  been  over- 
thrown with  the  help  of  the  Diet  (1680)  ;  absolute  power  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  king  by  the  Estates,  or  Diet;  he  resumed  all  lands  granted 
to  the  nobility  since  1609  ;  his  excellent  administration  ;  economy  and 
large  savings  ;  encouragement  of  Swedish  commerce. 

Christian  V.,  King  of  Denmark  (1670-99)  :  the  administration  of  Grif- 
fenfeld  ( 1670-76);  result  of  the  war  with  Sweden  ;  his  troubles  with  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp  ;  the  Convention  of  Altona  (1691);  his  attempts  to  imitate 
Louis  XIV.  ;  his  creation  of  a  privileged  nobility  ;  excellence  of  his 
navy  and  commerce  ;  his  administration  ;  his  invasion  of  Schleswig 
(1698)  ;  succeeded  by  Frederick  IV.  (1699), 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  (b.  1682^  :  succeeded  his  father  (1697);  ^is 
education  and  character  ;  declared  of  age  (1699);  danger  threatened  by 
the  alliance  against  him  of  Denmark,  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  Poland  and 
Russia. 

The  first  campaign  of  Charles  XII.  :  his  invasion  of  Denmark  in  aid 
of  his  cousin  and  brother-in-law,  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp  (July, 
1700)  ;  attack  on  Copenhagen  ;  Frederick  IV.  made  the  Treaty  of  Tra- 
vandahl  (18  Aug.,  1700),  granting  practical  sovereignty  to  the  Duke  in 
Schleswig. 

The  second  campaign  of  Charles  XII. ;  he  defeated  the  Russians  at 


58  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 

Narva  (30  Nov.,  1700)  and  the  Saxons  at  Klissow  (19  July,  1702),  and 
at  Pultusk  (I  May,  17031. 

Charles  XII.  despised  Russia  and  resolved  to  drive  Augustus  I.  out 
of  Poland  ;  the  Polish  Diet  declared  the  throne  of  Poland  vacant ;  elec- 
tion of  Stanislas  Leczinski  as  King  of  Poland  (12  July,  1704)  ;  Charles 
XII.  invaded  Saxony  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Altranstadt  (24  Sept.,  1706) 
Augustus  recognized  Stanislas  as  king  ;  execution  of  Patkul  (10  Oct.) ; 
commanding  position  of  Charles  XII.  in  European  politics  ;  expectation 
of  his  intervention  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  ;  visit  of  Marl- 
borough to  his  camp. 

Charles  XII.  invaded  the  Ukraine  (1708)  :  his  army  destroyed  or  cap- 
tured by  Peter  the  Great  at  Poltava  (11  July,  1709);  his  escape  to 
Bender  ;  his  efforts  to  induce  the  Turks  to  attack  Russia  ;  arrested  by 
the  Turks  and  imprisoned  at  Adrianople  (17 13). 

The  Northern  War  during  the  residence  of  Charles  XII.  at  Bender : 
Augustus  I.  disregarded  the  Treaty  of  Altranstadt  and  with  Peter  the 
Great  reconquered  Poland  ;  Stanislas  Leczinski  escaped  to  Sweden 
C1710)  and  joined  Charles  XII.  at  Bender  (17 13)  ;  the  Russians  recon- 
quered Esthonia  and  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  ;  Frederick  IV. 
of  Denmark  invaded  Sweden,  but  was  defeated  by  Stenbock  (b.  1664, 
d.  1 717)  at  Helsingborg  (10  March,  17 10);  Stenbock  defeated  the 
Danes  at  Gadebusch  (20  Dec,  17 12)  and  burnt  Altona  ;  joined  by  the 
Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp  ;  Stenbock  forced  to  surrender  at  Tonning 
(May,  17 13)  ;  the  Danes  conquered  Bremen  and  Verden  ;  campaign  of 
the  Russians,  Prussians,  Saxons  and  Danes  in  Pomerania  ;  the  wholtj 
province  occupied,  except  Stralsund. 

Position  of  the  northern  powers  at  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht :  exhausted 
condition  of  Sweden  ;  triumphant  attitude  of  Russia,  Prussia  and  Den- 
mark ;  Sweden  ceased  to  be  a  great  power ;  the  position  given  her  by 
the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  too  great  for  her  to  hold ;  sources  of  her 
strength  and  weakness. 

The  character  and  career  of  Charles  XII.:  "the  Madman  of  the 
North." 

Authorities:  The  best  small  books  are,  Voltaire,  Charles  XII.;  Bain, 
Charles  XII.  and  the  Collapse  of  the  Swedish  Empire  ;  Otte,  Scandinavian  History, 
and  Geffroy,  I^es  :^tats  Scandinaves      For  more  detailed  information  see  Wernich, 


The  Spanish  Succession.  59 

cited  under  Lecture  21;  Lundblad,  Geschichfe  Karls  des  Zwcilften.  2  vols.;  Beskow^ 
Karl'der  Tolfte,  and  Sarauzu,  Die  Feldzuge  Karls  XII,;  while  Schuyler^  Peter  the 
Great;  Morfill^  Story  of  Poland,  and  Tutile,  History  of  Prussia,  can  be  consulted 
for  the  Russian,  Polish  and  Prussian  sides  of  the  Northern  War.  The  general  his- 
tories of  Sweden  by  Fryxell^  and  by  Geijer,  translated  into  German  and  continued 
by  Carlson^  devote  much  space  to  the  reigns  of  Charles  XI.  and  Charles  XII. 


LECTURE  23. 


THE  SPANISH   SUCCESSION. 

The  question  of  the  succession  to  the  Spanish  dominions  upon  the 
long-expected  death  of  the  childless  Charles  II.  was  the  most  important 
question  in  European  politics  for  half  a  century:  efforts  made  to  settle 
the  question  by  peaceful  means;  the  doctrine  of  the  Balance  of  Power. 

The  reign  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain  (i 665-1 700):  the  regency  of  the 
queen-mother,  Donna  Marianna  (1665-75);  the  influence  of  P^re 
Nithard  (1665-69);  he  was  forced  to  retire  by  Don  John;  the  king 
declared  of  age  (1675);  the  government  of  Don  John  (1675-79);  Spain 
lost  French  Flanders  and  Franche-Comte  by  the  Treaties  of  Nimeguen 
(1678). 

Feeble  health  of  the  king:  the  influence  of  his  first  wife,  a  French 
princess,  Maria  Louisa  of  Orleans  (1679-89);  her  quarrels  with  her 
mother-in-law;  influence  of  his  second  wife,  Marianna  of  Neuburg, 
exercised  in  favor  of  Austria;  position  and  influence  of  Cardinal  Porto 
Carrero  (b.  1631,  d.  1709);  his  support  of  the  claims  of  the  Electoral 
Prince  of  Bavaria,  and  after  his  death  of  those  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou; 
Spain  invaded  by  the  French  (1694-97),  but  lost  nothing  by  the  Treaties 
of  Ryswick  (1697);  steady  decline  of  Spanish  power  and  prosperity. 

The  Secret  Partition  Treaty  between  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Emperor 
Leopold  (19  Jan.,  1668)  :  Louis  to  have  the  Catholic  Netherlands, 
Franche-Comte,  Navarre,  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  African  settle- 
ments, Naples,  Sicily  and  northern  Catalonia;  Leopold  to  have  Spain, 
the  Canary  Islands,  the  Indies,  Sardinia,  Milan,  Finale  and  the  Tuscan 


6o  The  Spanish  Succession. 

presidios  ;  these  terms  made  impossible  by  the  Treaties  of  Ryswick. 

The  claimants  to  the  Spanish  Succession  and  their  claims  :  Philip, 
Duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.;  the  Archduke  Charles, 
younger  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  ;  and  the  Electoral  Prince  of  Ba- 
varia.    (See  Appendix  V.) 

Charles  II.  recognized  the  Electoral  Prince  of  Bavaria  as  heir  to  all 
his  dominions  (1696). 

The  First  Partition  Treaty  between  William  III.  and  Louis  XIV. 
(11  Oct.,  1698):  the  Electoral  Prince  to  have  Spain,  Sardinia,  the 
Indies  and  the  Catholic  Netherlands;  Charles  to  have  the  Milanese; 
Philip  to  have  Naples,  Sicily,  Finale,  the  Tuscan  presidios  and  Gui- 
puzcoa;  arrangement  accepted  by  Spain;  death  of  the  Electoral  Prince 
of  Bavaria,  at  Brussels  (6  Feb.,  1699). 

The  Second  Partition  Treaty  between  William  III.  and  Louis  XIV. 
(13  Mar.,  1700):  Charles  to  have  Spain,  the  Indies,  the  Netherlands 
and  Sardinia;  Philip  to  have  the  same  as  before,  with  the  addition  of  the 
Milanese,  which  was  to  be  exchanged  for  Lorraine. 

Intrigues  around  the  death  bed  of  the  king  at  Madrid  :  Charles  II. 
made  a  will  leaving  all  the  Spanish  possessions  to  Philip  (2  Oct., 
1700*)  and  died  (i  Nov.,  1700). 

Louis  XIV.  accepted  the  will  and  acknowledged  his  grandson  as 
ruler  of  all  the  Spanish  dominions  (16  Nov.,  1700);  "the  Pyrenees  no 
longer  exist";  the  Duke  of  Anjou  proclaimed  King  of  Spain  at  Mad- 
rid as  Philip  V.  (24  Nov.,  1700);  crowned  at  Madrid  (10  Apr.,  1701); 
his  title  was  recognized  reluctantly  by  William  III. ;  his  marriage  to 
Marie  Gabrielle  of  Savoy  (11  Sept.,  1701). 

First  mistake  of  Louis  XIV.:  introduction  of  French  troops  into  the 
"  barrier  fortresses  "  (6  Feb.,  1701);  formation  of  the  Grand  Alliance  (7 
Sept.,  1701)  between  the  Emperor,  England,  the  Dutch  and  the  King 
of  Prussia  ;  second  mistake  of  Louis  XIV. :  recognition  of  the  Pretender 
as  King  of  England  after  the  death  of  James  II.  (17  Sept.,  1701);  the 
English  Parliament  enthusiastic  for  war ;  death  of  William  III.  (19 
March,  1702)  and  accession  of  Queen  Anne. 

The  Grand  Alliance  against  Louis  XIV.  joined  by  the  Empire  (30 
Sept.,  1702);  its  leading  spirits  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  (b.  1650,  d. 
1722);  Prince  Eugene  (b.  1663,  d.  1736)  in  the  service  of  the  Emperor; 


War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  6l 

and  the  Grand  Pensionary  Heinsius  (b,  164 1,  d.  1720);  the  allies  of 
France  were  the  Dukes  of  Modeiia,  Mantua,  Guastalla  and  Savoy,  and 
the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Cologne ;  the  Duke  of  Savoy  for  his  alli- 
ance obtained  the  hand  of  the  new  king  for  his  second  daughter ;  the 
chief  French  generals  were  Vendome  (b.  1654,  d.  17 12);  Villars  (b. 
1653,  d.  1734);  Tallard  (b.  1652,  d.  1728);  ViUeroi  (b.  1644,  d.  1730), 
and  Berwick  (b.  1670,  d.  1734).  u*  ,  .-.  . 

The  advantages  possessed  by  Louis  XIV.  at  the  commencement  of 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succesion  :  central  position  and  centralized 
government. 

Authorities :  For  Spain  during  the  reign  of  Charies  II., see  Diinlop,  Memoirs 
of  Spain  during  the  Reigns  of  Phihp  IV.  and  Charles  II.;  Weiss,  l^'Espagne  depuis 
le  regne  de  Philippe  II.,  jusqu'd  I'av^nement  des  Bourbons;  Alexander  Stan- 
hope, Spain  under  Charles  II.  (1690-99);  and  Villars,  M^moires  sur  la  cour 
d'Espagne  (1679-81)  and  Muret,  Lettres  ^crites  de  Madrid  en  1666-67.  both  ed.  by 
Morel  Fatio.  For  the  diplomatic  history  of  the  period,  see  Macaulay,  Sirtema  de 
Grovestins,  Kemble,  and  Lexington  Papers,  cited  under  Lecture  19 ;  Reynold^ 
Louis  XIV.  et  Guillame  III.,  histoire  des  deux  trait^s  de  partage  et  du  testament 
de  Charles  II.;  Courcy,  La  coalition  de  1701  contre  la  France,  and  Renonciation 
des  Bourbons  au  trone  d'Espagne  ;  Legrelle,  La  diplomatie  frangaise  et  la  succes- 
sion d'Espagna  ;  Hippeau,  Av^nement  des  Bourbons  au  trone  d'Espagne,  corre- 
spondance  in^dite  du  marquis  d'Harcourt;  Gritnblot,  Letters  of  William  IIJ.  and 
Louis  XIV.  (1697-1700);  Loiiville,  Memoires  secrets  sur  I'dtablissement  de  la 
maison  de  Bourbon  en  Espagne;  Gddeke,  Die  Politik  CEsterreichs  in  der  spanischen 
Erbfolgegrage,  and  Mignet,  N^gociatious  relatives  a  la  succession  d'Espagne  sous 
Louis  XIV.  (to  1679). 


LECTURE  24. 


THE  WAR  OF  THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION,    1701-14. 

The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  :  the  four  theatres  of  the  war, 
the  Netherlands   Germany,  Italy  and  Spain. 

Campaign  of  1701  :  Eugene  turned  the  position  of  Catinat  in  Lom- 
bardy  and  defeated  Villeroi  at  Chiari  (i  Sept.). 


62  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 

Campaign  of  1702  :  Eugene  surprised  Villeroi  at  Cremona  (i  Feb.)  ; 
the  Dukes  of  Modena  and  Guastalla  abandoned  France  ;  Vendome  de- 
feated Eugene  at  Luzzara  (15  Aug.)  ;  Louis  of  Baden  invaded  Alsace 
and  seized  Landau  (10  Sept.);  Bavaria  declared  war  and  occupied  Ulm 
(8  Sept.)  ;  Villars  defeated  Louis  of  Baden  at  Friedlingen  (14  Oct.)  ; 
Marlborough  captured  Liege  and  other  fortresses  on  the  Meuse. 

Campaign  of  1703  :  the  Emperor  recognized  his  son  Charles  as  King 
of  Spain  (Sept.);  French  plan  of  marching  on  Vienna  ;  Francis  Rakoczy 
raised  an  insurrection  in  Hungary  ;  critical  position  of  the  Emperor ; 
Villars  entered  Bavaria  ;  Vendome  entered  the  Tyrol  ;  Vendome  forced 
to  retire  owing  to  the  conduct  of  Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy,  who  joined 
the  Allies  (8  Nov.)  ;  importance  of  this  event ;  the  Duke  received  from 
the  Emperor  Alessandria,  Valenza,  the  Val  Sesia  and  the  Lomelline ; 
Villars  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Hochstadt  (21  Sept.)  ;  Tallard  de- 
feated the  Imperialists  before  Spires  (14  Nov.)  and  recaptured  Landau 
(17  Nov.)  ;  Marlborough  took  Bonn  (May)  and  occupied  the  Electorate 
of  Cologne  ;  insurrection  in  the  Cevennes  of  the  Protestants,  known  as 
the  "  Camisards",  under  Cavalier  ;  Portugal  joined  the  Grand  Alliance 
(16  May). 

Campaign  of  1 704  :  Vend6me  conquered  Piedmont ;  successes  of 
Rakoczy  ;  Marlborough  joined  Eugene  in  Bavaria  and  crushed  Tallard 
at  Blenheim  (13  Aug.)  ;  Louis  of  Baden  retook  Landau  (24  Nov.)  and 
Marlborough,  Treves ;  importance  of  the  battle  of  Blenheim ;  Sir 
George  Rooke  seized  Gibraltar  (4  Aug.)  ;  the  Archduke  Charles  landed 
at  Lisbon,  escorted  by  an  English  fleet  (May),  and  was  recognized  as 
King  of  Spain  by  the  King  of  Portugal. 

Campaign  of  1705  :  Joseph  I.  succeeded  Leopold  as  Emperor  (6  May); 
his  conciliatory  policy  towards  Hungary  ;  Villars  put  down  the  revolt 
in  the  Cevennes,  took  Wissembourg  and  invaded  Baden  ;  Vendome  be- 
sieged Turin  and  defeated  Eugene  at  Cassano  (16  Aug.)  ;  Marlborough 
in  the  Catholic  Netherlands  ;  Galway  invaded  Spain  from  Portugal ; 
Peterborough  (b.  1658,  d.  1735)  took  Barcelona  (13  Sept.),  and  Cata- 
lonia declared  for  the  Archduke  Charles. 

Campaign  of  1706  :  Galway  occupied  Madrid  (2  July),  but  the  Span- 
iards rose  for  Philip  V.  and  drove  him  out  (Auo^.)  ;  Peterborough  took 
Valencia  and   relieved  Barcelona  ;  Eugene    defeated  Orleans,  relieved 


War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  63 

Turin,  (7  Sept.)  and  drove  the  French  out  of  Italy  ;  Villars  retook  Lau- 
terbourg  and  Hagueuau  ;  Marlborough  crushed  Viileroi  at  RamUlies 
(23^ay)  and  occupied  the  Catholic  Netherlands,    y^^  7y-vLC>w/i  >u 

Campaign  of  1707  :  Berwick  defeated  Galway  at  Almanza  (15  April)  ; 
all  Spain,  except  Catalonia,  now  supported  Philip  V.;  Naples  ac- 
knowledged the  Archduke  Charles  ;  the  Emperor  confiscated  the  duchy 
of  Mantua,  and  granted  Montferrat  and  Casale  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy, 
but  added  Mantua  to  the  Milanese  ;  Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
iQvaded  France  and  besieged  Toulon  ;  Villars  stormed  Stolhofen  (23 
May),  invaded  Germany  and  invited  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  to  join 
him ;  Marlborough  conducted  no  itnportant  military  operations,  but 
visited  Charles  XII.  and  kept  him  from  intervening. 

Campaign  of  1708:  Rakoczy,  utterly  defeated,  escaped  to  Poland; 
Stanhope  took  Port  Mahon,  in  Minorca  ;  the  Austrians,  under  Daun, 
occupied  Naples  and  Sardinia  ;  Pope  Clement  XI.  prepared  to  resist  ; 
Vendome  conquered  the  Catholic  Netherlands,  but  was  defeated  by 
Marlborough  and  Eugene  at  Oudenarde  Tii  Tulv). ;  the  Allies  invaded 
France  ;  capture  of  Lille  (22  Oct.).         3^-L  rs-^    ^  ^  ^O^Ur^^o^^^ 

Negotiations  of  Louis  XIV.  for  peace;  the  demands  of  the  Allies; 
Louis  appealed  to  France  and  continued  the  war. 

Campaign  of  1709:  the  Pope,  by  the  approach  of  Austrian  troops, 
forced  to  recognize  the  Archduke  Charles  as  King  of  Spain  (15  Jan.)  , 
Marlijornugh  and  Eugene  took  Tournai  (2  Sept.);  the  battle  of  JNIal^. 
Plaquet  (11  Sept.).  X{,^,,^^^iuua   ^  ^^  -r  v-^.^.  Xr^^tu^^       '~" 

Negotiations  of  Geertruidenberg. 

Campaign  of  17 10:  Guido  Starhemberg  and  Stanhope  (b.  1673,  d. 
1721)  defeated  Philip  V.  at  Almenara  (27  July)  and  Saragossa  (20  Aug.); 
the  Archduke  Charles  occupied  Madrid  (21  Sept.);  Vendome  made 
Stanhope  prisoner  at  Brihuega  (9  Dec.)  and  defeated  Starhemberg  at 
Villa  Viciosa  (10  Dec.)  ;  Marlborough  and  Eugene  took  Douai  (25 
June),  Bethune  (29  Aug.)  and  Aire  (8  Nov.);  conquest  of  Acadia; 
capture  of  Port  Royal  (16  Oct.).  ^       ^ 

General  wearmess^of  the  war  :  the  Tory  Ministry  formed  in  Eng- 
land (17 10)  ;  the  Archduke  Charles  succeeded  his  brother,  Joseph  I. 
(17  April.  171 1)  ;  elected  Emperor  as  Charles  VI.;  effect  of  this  change. 

Campaign  of    171 1  :    Marlborough  captured   Bouchain  (12  Sept.); 


64  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

Torcy  (b.  1665,  d.  1746)  and_Bolingbroke  (b.  1678,  d.  1751),  the 
French  and  English  ministers,  secretly  arranged  preliminaries  of  peace  ; 
Marlborough  removed  from  the  command  of  the  army  (31  Dec);  Du- 
guay  Trouin  captured  Rio  de  Janeiro  (23  Sept.). 

The  congress  of  plenipotentiaries  to  decide  on  terms  of  peace  met  at 
Utrecht  (Jan.,  17 12). 

Campaign  of  1712!. truce  made  by  the  English  (17  July);  Villars 
defeated  Eugene  at  Denain  (24  July)  and  recaptured  Douai  (8  Sept.), 
Ee  Quesnoy  (4  Oct.)  and  Bouchain  (18  Oct.). 

The  Emperor  refused  to  accept  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht,  signed  11 
April,  17 13,  and  continued,  the  war. 

Villars  took  Eandau  (20  Aug.)  and  Freiburg  (3  Nov.). 

The  Emperor  made  peace  with  France  at  Rastadt  (7  March,  17 14); 
the  treaty  confirmed  by  the  Empire  at  Baden  (7  Sept.,  17 14). 

Contrast  between  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  and  the  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

Authorities-:  For  a  short  account  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  see 
Stanhope,  History  of  England  during  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne,  2  vols.  Among 
general  secondary  authorities  see  Philippson,  Das  Zeitalter  Ludwig's  des 
Vierzehnten  ;  Wyon,  History  of  Great  Britain  during  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne, 
2  vols. ;  Cojre,  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  ;  Reynald, 
Guerre  de  la  succession  d'Bspagne  ;  ndgocialions  entre  la  France,  I'Angleterre  et  la 
Hollande  (1705-06);  Moret,  Quinze  Ans  du  regne  de  Louis  XIV.,  3  vols.;  Noailtes, 
Histoire  de  Madame  de  Maintenon,  4  vols. ;  Von  Noorden,  Europaische  Geschichte 
im  Achtzehnten  Jahrhundert,  vols.  1-3  ;  Krohn,  Die  letzten  Lebensjahre  Ludwigs 
XIV.;  Ennen,  Der  spanische  Erbfolgekrieg  und  der  Churfiirst  Joseph  Clemens  von 
Coin;  Gachard,  Histoire  de  la  Belgique  au  commencement  du  XVIII.  siecle; 
Caruttiy  Storia  del  regno  di  Vittorio  Amadeo,  and  Landau,  Geschichte  Kaiser. 
Karls  VI.  als  Konig  von  Spanien,  and  Rome,  Wien,  Neapel  wahrend  des  spanischer 
Erbfolgekrieges.  Among  diplomatic  secondary  authorities  see  Legrelle,  La 
diplomatic  fran^aise  et  la  succession  d'Bspagne,  4  vols.,  and  Une  ndgociation  iu- 
connue  entre  Berwick  et  Marlborough  (1708-9) ;  Fazy,  Les  Suisses  et  la  neutrality 
de  Savoie  (1703-4);  Hill,  Diplomatic  Correspondence  from  the  Court  of  Savoy 
(July,  1703,  to  May,  1706),  ed,  Blackley ;  D'' Haussonville ,  ha  duchesse  de  Bour- 
gogne  et  I'alliance  savoyarde  sous  Louis  XIV.;  Cooke,  Memoirs  of  Lord  Boling- 
broke,  and  Gddeke,  Die  Politik  CEsterreichs  in  der  spanischen  Erbfolgefrage. 
Among  military  secondary  authorities  see  Cojire,  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough,  6  vols.;  Alison,  Military  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  ;  Stan- 
hope, History  of  the  War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain  ;  Parnell,  The  War  of  the 


The   Treaties  of  Utrecht,  65 

Succession  in  Spain  ;  Wilson,  The  Duke  of  Berwick,  Marshal  of  France;  I'ogui, 
Villars;  Du  Casse,  L'amiial  Du  Casse  (1646-1715);  Malleson,  Prince  Eugene  of 
Savoy;  Babeau,  La  marechal  do  Villars,  gouverneur  de  Proven9e;  Court de  Gcbelin^ 
Histoire  dcs  troubles  des  Cevennes ;  Arneth,  Prinz  Eugcn  von  Savoyen,  3  vols., 
and  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Graf  Guido  Stahremberg ;  and  Ottieri,  Istoria  delle 
guerre  avveuute  in  Europa  e  particolaramente  in  Italia  (1696-1725)  5  vols.  The 
chief  primary  authorities  are  Pelet,  M^moires  militaires  relatifs  d  la  succession 
d'Espagne,  11  vols.  (Collection  des  Documents  in^dits),  and  Matuschka,  Feldziige 
des  Prinzen  Eugen  von  Savoyen,  17  vols. ;  Heller,  Militarise  he  Korrespondenz  des 
Prinzen  Eugen  von  Savoyen  (1694-1705),  3  vols.;  Bellerive,  Histoire  des  derni^res 
campagnes  du  Ducde  Veudosme  ;  but  see  also  Baudrillart,  Philippe  V.  d'Espagne 
et  la  cour  de  France,  3  vols  ;  Murray,  Letters  and  Despatches  of  Marlborough,  5 
vois.;  Rambuteau,  Lettres  du  marechal  de  Tess^  (1701-14);  Rodervon  Diersburg, 
Kriegs-  und  Staats-schriften  des  Markgrafen  Ludwig  Wilhelm  von  Baden  iiber  dea 
spanischen  Erbfolgekrieg  ;  Fiedler,  Actenstiicke  zur  Geschichte  Franz  Rdk6czy's 
(Fontes  rerum  Austriacarum,  vols.  ix.  and  xvii. );  Lamberty,  Memoires  pour  servir 
a  I'histoire  du  XVIIIi^me  siecle,  14  vols.,  and  the  Memoires  of  Berwick,  Villars, 
Duguay-Trouin^  Forbin  and  Torcyt  with  the  Journal  in^dit,  1709-1711,  of  Torcy\ 
edited  by  Masson. 


LECTURE  25. 


THE  TREATIES  OF  UTRECHT. 

The  first  negotiations  made  by  Louis  XIV.  after  Ramillies  (1706)  ; 
his  attempt  to  detach  the  Dutch  from  the  Grand  Alliance  ;  refusal  of 
the  Grand  Pensionary,  Heinsius,  to  treat  separately  (19  Nov.). 

Second  negotiations  at  the  Hague  with  the  Allies  after  Gudenarde  and 
the  loss  of  Lille  (May-June,  1709)  ;  hard  terms  offered  to  Louis  XIV. 
(28  May)  ;  his  refusal  to  accept  themi  (2  June). 

Conference  at  Geertruidenberg  after  Malplaquet  (March-July,  1710)  ; 
Louis  XIV.  willing  to  accept  the  terms  offered  at  the  Hague  ;  the  con- 
ference broken  up  (25  July). 

Effect  on  the  situation  of  the  accession  of  the  Tories  to  power  in  Eng- 
land (1710)  and  of  the  recall  of  Marlborough  (1711). 

Death  of  the  Dauphin  (14  April,  1711).^^^ 

Congress  for  peace  opened  at  Utrecht  (w  Jan.,  1712)  ;  the  chief  plenl- 


66  The  Treaties  of   Utrecht. 

potentiaries,  Torcy  for  France,  Bolingbroke  for  England,  Heinsius  for 
the  Protestant  Netherlands  and  Mellarede  for  Savoy  ;  progress  of  the 
negotiations ;  treaties  of  peace  signed  between  France,  England,  the 
Netherlands,  Prussia  and  Savoy,  at  Utrecht  (ii  April,  1713) ;  the 
Etnperor  Charles  VI.  continued  at  war  with  France  and  Spain. 

Treaties  signed  between  France  and  the  Emperor  at  Rastadt  (7  March, 
1714),  confirmed  by  the  Empire  at  Baden  (7  Sept.,  1714),  and  between 
Spain  and  Portugal  at  Madrid  (6  Feb.,  1715);  but  theEmpeior  madeno 
peace  with  Spain  and  refused  to  acknowledge  Philip  V. 

The  whole  series  may  be  considered  together  as  the  Treaties  of 
Utrecht. 

Chief  provisions:  A.  The  Spanish  succession.  2.  Philip  V.  recog- 
nized as  King  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  on  condition  that  the  crowns  of 
Spain  and  France  should  never  be  united,  ii.  The  Emperor  Charles 
VI.  received  the  Milanese,  Naples,  Sardinia  and  the  Catholic  Nether- 
lands, iti.  Victor  Amadeus  II.  of  Savoy  received  Sicily,  iv.  England 
received  Gibraltar  and  Minorca. 

B.  Louis  XIV.  of  France  restored  Tournai,  Ypres  and  Furnes  to  the 
Catholic  Netherlands,  but  in  other  respects  maintained  his  borders  as 
settled  by  the  Treaties  of  Ryswick  ;  the  principality  of  Orange  in  the 
south  of  France,  which  had  belonged  to  William  III.,  was  granted  to 
Louis  XIV.;  he  ceded  Acadia  (Nova  Scotia)  to  England,  recognized 
the  Protestant  Succession,  and  promised  to  expel  the  Stuart  Pretender 
and  to  dismantle  Dunkirk. 

C.  England  received  Gibraltar  and  Minorca  from  Spain,  and  Acadia 
from  France ;  her  sovereignty  in  Newfoundland  (subject  to  certain  fish- 
ing rights)  and  Hudson's  Bay  recognized;  the  Protestant  succession  in 
the  line  of  Hanover  acknowledged ;  and  by  an  Assiento  she  obtained 
certain  rights  of  commerce  with  Spanish  South  America. 

D.  The  Emperor  Charles  VI.  received  the  Catholic  Netherlands,  sub- 
ject to  an  arrangement  with  the  Dutch;  Naples,  with  the  Tuscan  pre- 
sidios, which  were  governed  from  Naples  until  1801  ;  Sardinia  ;  the 
Milanese,  together  with  Mantua,  whose  last  Gonzaga  duke  had  di(.d 
in  1708  ;  and  Finale,  which  he  sold  to  Genoa  on  20  August,  1713. 

E.  The  creation  of  the  Electorate  of  Hanover  (1692)  recognized. 

F.  The  Elector  of  Bavaria  and  the  Elector- Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
Prince  Joseph  Clement  of  Bavaria,  restored  to  their  dominions. 


The  Treaties  of  Utrecht.  67 

G.  The  title  of  the  King  of  Prussia  recognized;  in  satisfaction  of  his 
claims  as  heir  to  William  III.,  he  received  Upper  or  Spanish  Gelder- 
land  and  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Neufchdtel. 

H.  The  Dutch  have  the  closing  of  the  Scheldt  to  commerce  and  their 
right  to  garrison  the  eight  "barrier  fortresses"  in  the  Catholic  Nether- 
lands— Charleroi,  Furnes,  Ghent,  Menin,  Mons,  Namur,  Tournai  and 
Ypres— confirmed. 

I.  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  had  the  cessions  of  Alessan- 
dria, Valenza,  the  Val  Sesia  and  the  Lomelline,  granted  in  1703,  and  of 
Casale  and  Montferrat,  granted  in  1707  from  the  duchy  of  Mantua, 
confirmed,  and  received  Sicily,  with  the  title  of  King  of  Sicily. 

J.  The  Catalans  abandoned. 

Importance  of  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht :  comparison  with  the  Treaties 
of  Westphalia  ;  the  most  notable  points  ;  France  left  upon  the  Rhine  and 
in  close  alliance  with  Spain;  England  showed  further  development  in 
the  direction  of  commerce  and  colonies  ;  the  dominions  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg  became  nominally  larger  but  more  unwieldy  and  less  Ger- 
man; Spain  lost  its  Italian  and  Belgian  possessions  and  was  confined, 
in  Europe,  to  the  Peninsula  ;  Brandenburg  took  a  step  in  advance 
among  the  nations  in  becoming  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  and  Savoy 
also  became  a  kingdom  with  its  chief  interests  in  Italy. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Balance  of  Power  in  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht  ; 
neglect  of  the  Principle  of  Nationality. 

Authorities :  Most  of  the  general  and  diplomatic  secondary  atttborities 
cited  under  Lectures  23  and  24  devote  much  space  to  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht.  Good 
special  volumes  have  been  written  by  Gerard,  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht;  Giratid,  Le 
trait6  d'Utrecht,  and  Weber^  Der  Friede  von  Utrecht,  and  &  primary  authority 
of  importance  is  Torcy,  M4moires. 


LECTURE   26. 


GERMANY  TO   1715. 

Comparison  between  the  condition  of  Germany  after  the  Treaties  of 
Utrecht  and  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia. 


68  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  to  I'/iS- 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire  :  constant  election  of  the  chief  of  the 
House  of  Austria  to  be  Emperor  owing  to  the  votes  he  commanded  as 
the  leading  Catholic  power ;  decreasing  influence  of  the  Emperors  in 
German  affairs;  the  perpetual  capitulation;  changes  in  the  constitution 
of  the  Empire. 

i.  Recognition  of  Prussia  as  a  kingdom:  the  Emperor  Leopold 
agreed  to  give  the  Elector  Frederick  of  Brandenburg  the 
title  of  King  of  Prussia,  as  Prussia  was  a  state  independent 
of  the  Empire,  in  return  for  assistance  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession;  the  other  powers  of  Europe  recognized 
the  title  by  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht;  as  a  member  of  the 
Empire  he  remained  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
ii.  College  of  Electors:  the  Emperor  Leopold  made  the  Duke  of 
Hanover  an  Elector  (1692),  at  the  same  time  restoring  the 
full  electoral  powers  to  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  ;  opposition 
of  the  other  Electors  and  of  the  Princes  of  the  Empire  ; 
league  formed  against  the  new  electorate  (1700) ;  the  Emperor 
promised  to  make  no  further  electorates  without  the  consent 
_oftheJEmpire  (1706)  ;  electorate  of  Hanover  accepted  by  the 
Diet  (1710). 
Hi.  CoUege  of  Princes  :  the  Emperor's  right  to  create  new  Princes 
limited  (1654)  ;  settlement  of  the  "  collegiate  "  votes  ;  crea- 
tion of  new  Princes  made  still  more  difficult  and  dependent 
on  the  consent  of  the  Electoral  College,  the  Princely  College 
and  his  Bench(i7ii)  ;  growth  of  the  custom  of  primogeni- 
ture and  its  effect  in  causing  the  accumulation  of  votes  ;  ex- 
ception of  Saxony. 
iv.  College  of  Free  Cities  :  its  decay  owing  to  the  falling  off  in  the 
prosperity  of  the  cities  ;  only  the  three  Hansa  cities  remained 
powerful  ;  conquest  of  Miinster  by  Bishop  Galen  (1661),  of 
Erfurt  by  the  Elector  of  Mayence  (1664),  of  Magdeburg  by 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  (1666),  of  Brunswick  by  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick  (1671)  and  seizure  of  vStrasburg  by  Louis 
XIV.  (1681)  ;  general  tendency  of  the  Free  Cities  to  decline 
in  importance. 
V,  The  Imperial  Diet:  its  policy  after  it  became  perpetual  and 


Austria  to  17 fS-  69 

attended  only  by  envoys  ;  disputes  about  precedence  ;  its 
cumbrous  procedure  ;  inefficiency  of  its  military  action. 
VI.  The  Imperial  Chamber  :  its  seat  moved  from  Spires,  after  the 
burning  of  that  city  by  the  French  in  the  devastation  of  the 
Palatinate  in  1689,  to  Wetzlar  in  1691  ;  quarrels  among  the 
assessors;  the  Chamber  dissolved  ( 1 700)  ;  its  reorganization. 
vil.  The  Aulic  Council :  its  claim  to  deal  with  cases  concerning 

States. 
viii.  The  religious  question  :  the  application  of  the  doctrine  ' '  cujus 
regio,  ejus  religio  ' '  ;  failure  of  the  modifications  arranged  by 
the  Treaties  of  Westphalia ;  the  persecution  of  the  Protest- 
ants in  the  Palatinate. 
ix.  The  question  of  coinage  :  agreement  made  between  Saxony, 
Brandenburg  and  Brunswick  at  Zinna  (1667)  and  at  Leipzig 
(1690). 
X.  The  Gregorian  Calendar  adopted  by  the  Protestant  States  by 
a  decree  of  the  Diet  (1700). 
Austria  :  additional  dominions  gained  by  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht,  no 
additional  strength  ;  the  more  valuable  gains  of  the  Treaty  of  Carlowitz 
in  Hungary  and  Transylvania  tended  to  turn  its  policy  still  more  to- 
wards  the   East ;    internal   administration  ;    the  rebellion  of  Francis 
Rakoczy,  grandson  of  George  Rakoczy  II.,  Prince  of  Transylvania  and 
stepson  of  Tokoli,  in  Hungary  (i  703-11)  ;  the  brief  reign  of  Joseph 
I.  ( 1 705-11)  ;  his  concessions  to  the  Hungarians  and  consequent  over- 
throw of  Rakoczy  ;  his  concessions  to  the  Protestants  of  Silesia  at  the 
request  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  ;  his  penal  code  and  the  promise  of 
his  reign  ;  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  crowned  King  of  Hungary  (17 12)  ; 
his  settlement  of  Hungary. 

Prussia  :  the  aims  of  Frederick  III.,  Elector  of  Brandenburg  (1688- 
17 13),  to  become  a  king  and  to  increase  his  dominions  ;  his  character  ; 
his  policy. 

i.  His  foreign  policy  :  he  pursued  the  ideas  of  the  Great  Elector; 
he  joined  the  League  of  Augsburg  (1688)  and  sent  i5,o?o 
men  to  serve  under  William  III.  against  France  (1691-97)  ; 
he  sent  6,000  men  to  assist  the  Emperor  against  the  Turks 
(1691-99)  ;  he  sent  26,000  men  to  serve  through  the  War  of 


70  Prussia  to  17 15. 

the  Spanish  Succession  (1702-13)  ;  his  conduct  in  the  North- 
ern War  ;  his  propositions  to  Peter  the  Great  for  a  partition  of 
Poland. 
ii.  His  arrangements  for  the  title  of  king  :  he  promised  aid  in  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  to  excuse  the  Emperor's  debts 
to  him,  to  vote  for  an  Austrian  prince  for  Emperor,  and  to 
use  only  his  title  as  Elector  in  the  Imperial  Diet ;  he  crowned 
himself  at  Konigsberg  as  Frederick  I.,  King  of  Prussia  (18 
Jan.,  1 701)  ;  importance  of  this  step  ;  the  title  recognized  by 
the  Treaties  of  Utrecht. 

Hi.  His  territorial  policy  :  he  restored  Schwebus  to  Austria  with- 
out abandoning  his  claims  on  Silesia  (1694);  he  purchased 
Nordhausen  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony  (1697);  ^^  took  pos- 
session of  Elbing  in  Polish  Prussia  (1703)  ;  he  occupied 
Moeurs,  lyingen,  Heristal  and  Turnhout,  as  heir  of  William 
III.  (1702),  and  they  were  confirmed  to  him  by  the  Emperor 
(1707)  ;  he  seized  Upper  Gelderland  (1703),  which  was  ceded 
to  Prussia,  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  the  principality  of 
Orange,  by  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht ;  he  was  elected  Prince 
of  Neufchtel  (1707)  and  purchased  the  county  of  Tecklen- 
burg  (1707). 

iv.  His  internal  policy  :  he  followed  the  lines  of  the  Great  Elector 
and  prepared  the  way  for  Frederick  William  I.;  foundation 
of  the  University  of  Halle  (1694). 
V.  Accession  of  Frederick  William  I.  (25  Feb.,  17 13):  by  the 
Treaties  of  Utrecht  his  royal  title  was  recognized  and  his 
possession  of  Neufchatel  and  Upper  Gelderland  confirmed ; 
he  occupied  Stettin  and  Wismar  in  sequestration  during  the 
war  against  Sweden. 
Other  states  of  Germany  : 

i.  Electoral  Saxony  :  division  made  on  the  death  of  John  George 
I.  (1656);  its  prosperity  sacrificed  to  the  Polish  policy  of 
Augustus  I.;  when  elected  King  of  Poland  (1697)  he  be- 
came a  Catholic,  but  was  yet  allowed  to  remain  the  Director 
of  the  Protestant  party  in  the  Diet,  his  change  of  faith  be- 
ing personal  and  not  political  ;  by  a  convention  (1700)  re- 
ligious matters  were  left  to  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Weissenfels. 


Germany  to  17 15.  7 1 

ii.  Ducal  Saxony  :  the  rule  of  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious  of  Saxe- 
Gotha  (1640-74);  further  division  made  (1680),  but  no  more 
votes  allowed  in  the  College  of  Princes. 

ni.  Bavaria:  Ferdinand  Maria,  Elector  (1651-79)  ;  his  refusal  to 
be  a  candidate  for  the  Empire  (1657);  quarrels  with  the 
Elector  Palatine  about  the  Vicariate  of  the  Empire  ;  no  Ba- 
varian Diet  or  Landtag  summoned  after  1669  ;  Maximilian 
Emmanuel,  Elector  ( 1679- 1726);  candidature  of  his  son,  the 
Electoral  Prince,  for  the  throne  of  Spain ;  joined  Louis 
XIV.  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  ;  his  campaigns 
in  the  Tyrol  ;  put  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  and  from  the 
battle  of  Blenheim  in  1704  to  17 14  Bavaria  was  administered 
by  the  Emperors  ;  he  acted  as  Governor- General  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  under  Charles  II.  from  1692  to  1701, 
and  again  under  Philip  V.  from  1702  until  driven  out  after 
the  battle  of  Ramillies  (1706);  restored  to  his  dominions  by 
the  Treaty  of  Rastadt ;  condition  of  Bavaria  under  Austrian 
rule. 

iv.  The  Palatinate  :  the  last  Protestant  Electors  of  the  House  of 
Simmern,  Charles  Louis  I.  (1648-80)  and  Charles  Louis  II. 
(1680-85);  Charles  Louis  I.  joined  the  league  against  Louis 
XIV.  (1672);  devastation  of  the  Palatinate  by  Turenne 
(1675);  the  question  of  the  succession  (1685);  the  claims  of 
Louis  XIV. ;  Philip  William  of  Neuburg  succeeded  ;  fresh 
devastation  of  the  Palatinate  by  Duras  (1689);  destruction  of 
Heidelberg,  Mannheim,  Spires,  etc.;  accession  of  John  Wil- 
liam (1691);  his  ardent  Catholicism  ;  persecution  p£__tlie 
Protestants  ;  extensive  emigration  -  PhilSTWilTiam  paid 
300,000  scudi  (a  scudo  at  this  time  almost  equallea  a  dollar) 
to  Louis  XIV.  to  compensate  for  his  claims  ;  his  internal 
government ;  he  moved  his  capital  from  Heidelberg  to  Mann- 
heim (1720). 
V.  Hanover  :  character  and  career  of  Ernest  Augustus  (b.  1629), 
fourth  son  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick-Liineburg  and  first 
Elector  of  Hanover  ;  married  Sophia,  daughter  of  Frederick 
v.,  Elector  Palatine,  and  grand-daughter  of  James  I.,  of 


72  Gennany  to  I'/i^. 

England  (1658);  his  reputation  as  a  statesman  and  a  soldier  ; 
he  made  peace  between  England  and  the  Dutch  (1667);  be- 
came William  III.'s  chief  German  ally,  and  his  intermediary 
with  Brandenburg  and  the  Emperor  ;  he  took  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Hanover  (1679);  helped  to  form  the  League  of  Augs- 
burg  (i688)7an^"was^ade  Elector  of  Hanover  (i6q£):  his 
share  in  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  ;  established  primogeniture 
in  his  family  ;  his  death  (1697)  \  the  Elector  George  I.;  his 
increased  importance  in  German  aflfairs  after  his  m^tiiej-  was 
recognized  by  the  English_PadiamQaL  as  heirj£L.Engl^nd 
(1701);  he  united  the  Duchy  of  Zell  (1705);  his  policy  ;  his 
territorial  importance  between  Brandenburg  and  the  United 
Provinces  ;  his  attitude  toward  France  and  the  Emperor  ; 
admitted  to  the  Diet  as  an  Elector  (17 10);  the  Hanoverian 
succession  to  Great  Britain  recognized  by  the  Treaties  of 
Utrecht  (17 13);  death  of  the  Elec tress  Sophia  (8  June,  17 14); 
George  I.  succeeded  Queen  Anne  in  England  (i  Aug.,  17 14). 
vi.  The  ecclesiastical  Electors  and  Princes  of  the  Empire:  methods 
of  their  government ;  restrained  by  the  capitulations  made 
with  them  at  their  election  by  the  chapters  ;  the  power  of 
the  chapters  ;  large  sums  paid  to  the  Popes. 
The  petty  princes  of  Germany  :  their  imitation  of  Louis  XIV.  in 
their  absolutism,  in  refusing  to  summon  or  consult  their  Estates  or 
Diets,  in  their  extravagance  and  in  their  court  ceremonials. 

Authorities  :  For  the  condition  of  Germany  in  1715  in  addition  to  works  like 
those  of  Ltger,  cited  under  Lecture  9,  dealing  with  general  history,  see  Bieder- 
tnanfiy  Deutschland  im  achtzehnten  Jahrhundert  :  Vol.  i.,  Deutschlands  poUtische, 
materielle  und  sociale  Zustande ;  for  the  Empire,  see  Putter,  Historical  Develop- 
ment of  the  Constitution  of  the  Germanic  Empire,  translated  by  Dornford,  vol. 
ii.  ;  for  the  relations  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  Pribram,  CB^terreich  und  Bran- 
denburg (1681-86)  and  CEsterreich  und  Brandenburg  (1688-1700)  ;  for  Austria, 
Krones,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte  (Esterreichs,  5  vols.;  Mailath,  Geschichte der  CEs- 
terreichischen  Kaiserstaats  ;  Huber,  Geschichte  der  CEsterreichischen  Verwaltungs- 
organisation  ;  Coxe,  History  of  the  House  of  Austria,  4  vols.,  and  Bidennann,  Ge- 
schichte der  CEsterreichischen  Gesammt-Staats-Idee  ;  for  Prussia,  in  addition  to  the 
general  works  cited  under  Lecture  18,  Ledebur,  Konig  Friedrioh  I.  von  Preussen  ; 
WaddingtoUy  L'acquisition  de  la  couronne  royale  de  Prusse  par  les  Hohenzollern  ; 


The  Mediterranea7i  in  ijt^.  73 

Varnhagen  von  Ense,  Leben  der  Konigin  Sophie  Charlotte,  3  vols.;  Dohna. 
M^moires  originaux  sur  le  regne  et  la  conr  de  Frederic  I.;  Bourgeois,  Ncufchatel 
et  la  politique  prussienne  en  Franche-Conit^  (1702-13),  and  Lavisse,  Etudes  sur 
I'histoire  de  Prusse;  for  Electoral  Saxony,  Boftiger,  Geschichte  des  Kurstaates  und 
Konigreichs  Sachsen,  3  vols.;  for  Ducal  Saxony,  Gelbke,  Herzog  Ernst  der  Erste, 
genannt  der  Fromme,  and  Beck,  Ernst  der  Fromme ;  for  Bavaria,  Schreiber, 
Geschichte  Bayerns,  2  vols.;  fur  the  Palatiuate,  Haiisser,  Geschichte  der  rhein- 
ischen  Pfalz,  2  vols,  and  for  Hanover,  Heinemaiin,  Geschichte  von  Braunschweig 
und  Hannover;  Kocher,  Geschichte  von  Hannover  und  Braunschweig  (1648-1714) 
and  IMemoiren  der  Kurfursiin  Sophie  von  Hannover;  Leibnitz,  Correspondance 
avec  I'electrice  Sophie,  vols.  7-9  of  his  Werke,  and  Spittler,  Geschichte  des  Fiir- 
slenthums  Hannover  in  vols.  6  and  7  of  his  Sammtliche  Werke. 


LECTURE  27. 


THE  SOUTHERN  COUNTRIES   OF  EUROPE  TO   1715. 

Decreasing  naval  importance  of  the  Mediterranean  countries :  the 
commerce  of  the  Levant  passed  to  the  Dutch  and  the  English  ;  after 
the  loss  of  Candia,  Venice  became  an  Adriatic  instead  of  a  Mediter- 
ranean power  ;  injury  inflicted  by  the  Barbary  corsairs  ;  efforts  of  Louis 
XIV.  to  become  master  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  the  Dutch  and  English 
fleets  in  that  sea  ;  significance  of  the  capture  of  Gibraltar  by  the  Eng- 
lish (1704);  the  English  became  the  preponderating  naval  power  in  the 
Mediterranean  by  the  cession  of  Gibraltar  and  Minorca  (17 13). 

The  Turkish  power  after  the  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  (1699). 

The  reign  of  Mustapha  II.  (1695-1703):  his  military  disasters  com- 
pensated by  his  naval  successes  over  the  Venetians  ;  while  surrender- 
ing the  Adriatic  and  the  Morea  to  Venice,  and  Hungary,  except  the 
Hanat,  to  the  Emperor,  the  Turks  retained  the  islands  of  the  Archipe- 
lago and  the  control  over  the  Levant ;  Hussain  Kiuprili,  Grand  Vizier 
(1697- 1 702);  he  endeavored  to  reorganize  the  Turkish  army  and  navy; 
he  reduced  Bussora,  pacified  North  Africa  and  regulated  Turkish  au- 
thority in  Arabia  ;  the  Turks  begin  to  be  influenced  by  European  ideas 
and  to  translate  European  books  ;  revolt  of  the  Janissaries  and  over- 
throw of  Mustapha  II.  (1703). 


74.  Ii<^ly  io  ^7^5' 

Early  years  of  the  reign  of  Ahmad  III.  (1703-30):  he  announced  his 
accession  to  the  Christian  powers  ;  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  induced  the 
Sultan  to  attack  Russia  ;  the  Treaty  of  the  Pruth  (11  July,  171 1)  ;  the 
government  of  the  Danubian  provinces  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  ; 
after  17 16  in  Wallachia  and  171 1  in  Moldavia  the  Sultan  appointed  hos- 
podars  of  these  two  provinces  from  Greek  families  instead  of  from  the 
national  nobility. 

Italy  during  the  half  century  before  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht. 

I.  The  Popes  abandoned  the  territorial  aggrandizement  of  the  States 
of  the  Church  ;  their  attitude  towards  the  Catholic  powers,  and  partic- 
ulary  towards  Austria,  France  and  Spain  ;  loss  of  their  political  influ- 
ence ;  Clement  IX. — Rospigligsi;:;^i667-7o  ;  his  friendly  relations  with 
France;  Clement  X. — ATtien— i6^-7^bueb.ec  QJ^de  a  bishjOpric  (1676); 
Innocent  XI. — Odescalchij^i076'-^^9Tms  endeavors  to  reform  abiisesJmS^ 
a  hand  on  men  t  ofjie^otism  ;  his  quajTcls  with  I^ouis  XIV.  ;  Alexander 
VIII.- 

tude  towards  France;  Clement  XI.^^Alban!— 17^^^  ;  hTs' a"ttitude  on  ^Ic^ 
the  Spanish  Succession  ;  forced  to  recognize  the  Archduke  Charles ;  ^ 
issue  of  the  bull  "Unigenitus"  (1713)  ;  action  of  the  Papacy  during  ]J2 
this  period  towards  the  Jansenists,  the  Jesuits  and  the  Quietists.  ^~~ 

II.  Kingdom  of  Naples  :  its  welcome  to  the  Archduke  Charles  (1707); 
his  promise  to  observe  its  local  rights  ;  separated  from  Sicily  by  the 
Treaties  of  Utrecht  (1713)  and  given  to  the  House  of  Austria. 

III.  Kingdom  of  Sicily  :  given  to  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  Duke  of 
Savoy,   by   the  Treaties  of  Utrecht ;  the  character  of  Victor  Amadeus_ 

II.  ;    crowned   at   Palermo  (24  Dec,   1713)  ;  growth  of  the  House  of  C^^ 
^^   ^a^^^y  by  his  policy  ;  he  acquired  Alessandria,  etc.   (1703),  Montferrat    jj^ 
>Xi^,v^4C*fhd  Casale  (1707),  and  the  restoration  of  Savoy  and  Nice  (1713)  ;  mar-    ^K 
-j^  riage  of  his  two  daughters  to  two  grandsons  of  Louis  XIV.,  to  the  Duke     ^a^. 
"^    of  Burgundy,  father  of  Louis  XV.,  and  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain  ;  his  inter-  ^ 
nal  policy  ;  his  encouragement^p^ublic  works  ;  his  code  of  law^s  ;  his 
quarrel  with  Pope  Clement  XL  ;  taxationof  ecclesiastical  property.*^ 

IV.  The  Northern  Duchies:  Cosmo  III.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany 
(1670-1723),  last  ruler  but  one  of  the  House  of  Medici;  his  payment  of 
large  sums  to  remain  neutral  during  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succe.ssion; 


-Ottoboni — 1689-91  ;  madepeace  with   Louis  ^TV.  ;   Innocent 
-Pignatdli — i6Qr^^?7oot^is  econcony  anduprightnessjJhis^atljrA  ^ 
•wards  France  ;  Clement  Xl.^^^^Xlban! — 1700=^  fms^attitude  onj^ 


Spain  afid  Portugal  to  1715,  75 

bad  management  of  his  duchy  and  misery  of  his  people;  Francesco,  Duke 
of  Parma,  remained  neutral  during  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
but  Rainaldo,  Duke  of  Modena,  took  part  in  it  and  obtained  the  Duchy 
of  Mirandola  from  the  Emperor  ;  the  Duchy  of  Mantua  divided  ;  Man- 
tua given  to  Milan  and  Montferrat  to  Savoy  in  1707  by  the  Emperor, 
because  Charles  IV. — Gonzaga — supported  Louis  XIV.  in  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession,  but  a  small  district  given  to  the  Duke  of  Guas- 
talla,  who  supported  the  Emperor  ;  Milan  and  Mantua  granted  to  the 
Emperor  by  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht  (1713). 

V.  Venice:  successes  obtained  by  Morosini  in  the  war  against  the 
Turks ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  the  Republic  obtained  the  Morea, 
the  Ionian  Islands  and  Dalraatia,  and  became  the  preponderant  power 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic  ;  close  alliance  formed  between  the  Em- 
peror and  the  Venetians. 

VI.  Genoa :  its  independence  threatened  by  the  Dukes  of  Savoy ; 
conspiracy  of  Raphael  della  Torre  (1672)  ;  bombarded  by  a  French  fleet 
(1684)  ;  the  Doge  Imperiali  at  Versailles  (Feb.,  1685). 

Switzerland :   the   Swiss  Confederation  ;  the  thirteen   cantons  ;  the 
central  and  the  cantonal  governments  ;  division  into  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant, and  into  oligarchic  and  democratic,  cantons  ;  the  Swiss  mercen^i^^^^ 
ary  soldiers;  the  independent  republics  of  the  GrisohsTGraubiinden) 
and  of  Geneva. '-^^^"  ^'    ^-  V-"^*—t  - 

Spain  :  the  reign  of  Philip  V  ;  his  reception  in  Spain  ;  influenced  by 


Orsini  or  Des  Ursins  ;  interference  of  Louis  XIV.  in  the  internal  affairs 


his  wife  Marie  Gabrielle  of  Savoy,  who  was  controlled  by  the  Princess  "  JiS 


of  Spain  ;  administration  of  Amelot  (1705-09),  the  French  ambassador; 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  in  Spain ;  Philip  V.  twice  driven 
from  Madrid  ;  enthusiasm  of  the  Spaniards  for  him  and  his  queen  ;  by 
the  Treaties  of  Utrecht  Spain  lost  her  continental  possessions  as  well  as 
Gibraltar  and  Minorca  ;  treatment  of  the  Catalans  ;  the  Catalans  organ- 
ized a  republic  ;  gallant  defence  of  Barcelona  ;  captured  by  Berwick 
(12  Sept.,  1 7 14)  ;  death  of  the  queen  (14  Feb.,  17 14)  ;  influence  and 
character  of  Madame  des  Ursins  (b.  1641,  d.  1722). 
v^Porl^al :  the^eign  of  Pedro  II.  (168 5-1706)  ;  the  signature  of  the 
MethuenTreaty  wilb  England  (27  Dec,  1703)  ;  its  results  ;  part  taken 
by  Portugal  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  ;  accession  of  John  V, 
(1706) 


76  The  Jesuits, 

Authorities :  For  the  Turks  see  the  books  cited  for  Lecture  13  ;  for  Italy,  the 
books  cited  for  Lecture  14,  with  Michaud,  Louis  XIV.  et  Innocent  XL,  4  vols., 
and  Carutti,  Storia  del  regno  di  Vittorio  Amadeo  IL;  for  Spain,  Legrelle,  Ban- 
driUart,  Stanhope,  Parnell,  Rambuteau  and  Berwick^  cited  under  Lectures  23  and 
24,  with  Coxe,  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  vols,  i, 
2;  Correspondance  de  Louis  XIV.  avec  M.  Amelot,  ed.  Girardot ;  Combes,  La 
Princesse  des  Ursins,  the  Princess  des  Ursins,  Correspondance  avec  Madame  de 
Maintenon,  and  Lettres  in^dites,  ed.  Geffroy;  and  the  Mdmoires  of  Saint-Simon; 
for  Portugal,  see  Oliveira  Martins,  cited  under  Lecture  15. 


LECTURE  28. 


THE  PAPACY  IN  THE   17TH   CENTURY:    THE  JESUITS  AND  THE 

JANSENISTS. 

The  spiritual  power  of  the  Papacy  in  the  17th  century  as  opposed  to 
its  political  and  territorial  power.  ^ 

Gradual  decline  in  the  spiritual  power  to  be  observed  in  the  first  half 
of  the  17th  century,  the  Age  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  when  political 
considerations  were  becoming  paramount  over  religious  considerations ; 
more  rapid  decline  during  the  latter  half  of  the  century,  when  Catholic 
monarchs,  like  Louis  XIV.,  openly  quarrelled  with  the  Pope,  and  tried 
to  check  his  spiritual  authority. 

The  effect  of  the  Counter- Reformation  on  the  position  of  the  Papacy: 
its  chief  agents  the  Jesuits  ;  with  the  decline  of  the  Jesuits  from  their 
original  energy  the  Counter-Reformation  died  away. 
The  main  lines  of  the  work  of  the  Jesuits  : 

i.  Education  :  success  of  their  method  of  teaching ;  their  col- 
leges and  universities  ;  they  controlled  higher  education  in 
Catholic  countries. 
ii.  The  Confessional  :  they  become  the  confessors  of  kings  and 
statesmen  ;  Pere  La  Chaise,  Pere  Letellier  and  P^re  Nithard. 
iiu  Missions.  A.  Among  the  Protestants  :  their  work  in  Eng- 
land, Sweden  and  Poland.  B.  Among  the  heathen  :  in 
Asia,  in  India  and  China  ;  in  America,  in  Canada  and  Para- 
guay. 


Jesuits  atid  Jansenists.  77 

The  decline  in  Jesuit  energy  after  the  death  of  General  Acquaviva 
(1615J:  the  generalship  of  Muzio  Vitelleschi  (1615-45);  **  professed" 
members  began  to  accept  offices  of  power  ;  education  ceased  to  be  gen- 
erally free  ;  devotion  to  the  prosperit^f  the  Society  took  the  place  of 
devotion  to   the    Papacy  ;    limitation  of   the   general's  power   (1661); 
the  Society  interested  in  commerce  ;  its  commercial  center  at  Lisbon_: 
the  Society  supported  absolutism  against  the   Papacy  ;    it  supported  g^M* 
Louis  XIV.   against   Innocent  XL:    opposed  by  the  Jansenist  influ-a_:t. 
^"•^ence;    Pere   La  Chaise  and  Archbishop    Harlay  of   Paris;    Innocent^ 
T^y^  XI.  and  Alexander  VIII.  endeavored  to  check  the  power  of  the  Society 
and  went  so  far  as  to  forbid  its  admitting  novices  :  Clement  XI.  con- 


demned its  practices  in  foreign  missions  in  Asia  (17 15).  ^^^  _ 

The  Jesuit  theology  :  the  adoption  of  ' '  free  will ' '  doctrines 
mlnicans  quarrel  with  them  for  differing  from  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  ; 
growth  of  casuistry  ;  its  application  to  politics  and  the  result  ;  to 
private  life 7  the^^^//^'^5'  Provinciales  of  Pascal  (b.  1623,  d.  1662) 
overthrew  the  belief  in  scholastic  morality ;  the  theological  dis- 
tinction between  the  Jesuits  and-the  Jansenists  ;  Pere  Letellier  and 
■Archbishop  Noailles  of  Paris  ;  after  the  issue  of  the  bull  Ujiigeiiitus 
the  Jesuits  rallied  to  the  Papacy  and  became  Ultramontane. 

The  Jansenists  :  their  doctrines  a  reaction  against  the  theology  of  the 
Jesuits  ;  their  nickname  of  Catholic  Puritans  ;  the  Augustinus  of  Cor- 
nelius Jansen,  Bishop  of  Ypres,  published  in  1640,  after  his  death  ;  its 
theological  views  ;    the  doctrines  of  grace,  sin   and  forgiveness  ;    its 
rapid  success,  even  among  priests  and  bishops,  but  still  more  among 
the  educated  laity  of  France  and  the  Catholic  Netherlands;  Duvergier, 
Ahbp  de  5>aint-Oyrjin  ;  his  appliqatjon  of  JapsenJst. yjews  to  life;  his^.^ 
influence  on   At^g^lique  Arnaul(^TCl  15917a.   1651);  rorr  Royal  ;  Ws 
imprisonment  by  Richelieu  (1638-42);  the  Jansenists  implicated  in  the 
Fronde  ;  their  quarrel  with  the  Jesuits  ;  Port  Royal  the  home  of  moral 
and  intellectual  France  ;  the  influence  exerted  by  Amauld  (b.  161 2,  d. 
1694),  Nicole,  Lemaitre  de  Sacy,  Pascal  and  Racine  ;  the  publication  of-*^ 
the  Port  Royal  educational  works  ;  influence  oossessed  bv  the  Jansen-  *^ 
ists  in  France.  ^ 

First  struggle  with  the  Papacy  (1642-69):  Urban  VIII.  condemned 
Jansen's  Augustinus  (1642);  the  "five  propositions"  declared  heret- 


78  The  Jansenists. 

ical  by  the  bull  hi  Occasione,  issued  by  Innocent  X.  (31  May,  1653);  Ar- 
nauld  denied  that  the  ' '  five  propositions' '  were  contained  in  the  book  by 
Jansen  ;  Alexander  VII.  declared  that  they  were  ;  the  Jansenist  writers 
denied  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  in  dealing  with  matters  of  fact;  Louis 
XIV.  imprisoned  De  Sacy  and  persecuted  the  Jansenists,  including  the 
nuns  of  Port  Royal  ;  Clement  IX.  made  the  "  Peace  of  Clement  IX." 
(1668),  when  the  Jansenists  agreed  to  condemn  the  "  five  propositions  " 
without  acknowledging  whether  they  were  contained  in  Jansen's  book 
or  not. 

In  spite  of  the  King's  dislike  of  them,  the  Jansenists  became  more 
powerful  in  France,  especially  in  bourgeois  and  legal  circles. 

Second  struggle  with  the  Papacy  (1702-15):  the  Rifiexions  morales 
of  Quesnel  and  the  Cas  de  consciejice  ;  Archbishop  Noailles  manifested 
moderate  Jansenist  opinions  ;  he  distinguished  between  human  and  di- 
vine faith  in  the  Pope's  infallibility  on  questions  of  fact ;  opposition  of 
Pere  Letellier,  the  King's  confessor,  and  the  Jesuits  ;  they  appealed  to 
Rome  ;  Clement  XI.  tried  to  settle  the  question  by  the  bull  Vineain 
Domini  (15  July,  1705);  the  nuns  of  Port  Royal  refused  to  accept  the 
bull  ;  the  community  suppresse^rtT?  July7i709;  and  Port  Royal  or- 
dered to  be  destroyed  (22  Jan.,  17 10);  persecution  of  the  Jansenists  ; 
use  of  lettres  de  cachet ;  loi  propositions  from  Quesnel's  book  condemned 
by  the  bull  Unigenitus  (8  Sept.,  17 13);  the  Parlement  of  Paris,  led  by 
D' Aguesseau,  declined  to  register  the  bull  as  law  without  modifications  ; 
Noailles  and  fifteen  bishops  refused  to  accept  it  ;  a  council  summoned. 
to  depose  them  ;  they^  were  saved  by  the  death  of  Louis  XIV-^vi^^UJiA^ 


uietists  :  Molinos  and  his  doctrines  ;  condemned  b5'nf*ope1Kno-  '^^'-^'^^^ 
cent  XI.  (1687)  >*  Madame  Guyon  ;  her  mysticism  ;  her  relations  with 
Fenelon  ;  controversy^   between  Bossuet  and  Fenelon  ;  Innocent  XII. 
condemned  Fenelon's    Explications  des  Maximes    des  Saints    (1699)  J 
lyouis  XIV.  and  his  attitude  towards  the  Quietists. 

Marie  Alacoque  (b.  1647,  ^-  1690)  and  the  worship  of  the  Sacred 
Heart ;  the  Abbe  de  Ranee  (b.  1626,  d.  1700)  and  the  monastery *of  La 
Trappe. 

Authorities  :  For  an  account  in  English  of  the  Jansenist  movement  see  Beard, 
Port  Royal,  2  vols.  Among  secondary  authorities  consult  CrHineati-Joly\ 
Histoire  religieuse,  politique  et  littdraire  de  la  compagnie  de  Jesus,  6  vols.;  Rapin, 


Madafuc  de  Maintenon.  79 

Histoire  du  Jansdnisme;  Sainte-Beuve,  Port  Royal,  7  vols.;  Reuchlin,  Geschichte 
von  Port  Royal,  2  vols.;  SoyreSy  The  Provincial  L/Ctters  of  Pascal;  Victor  Cousin^ 
Jacqueline  Pascal ;  Lajitau,  Histoire  de  la  Constitution  Uuigenitus;  Le  Roy.  Le  Gal- 
licanisme  au  XVIII*  sidcle  ;  la  France  et  Rome  de  1700  d  1715  ;  histoire  diploma- 
tique de  la  bulle  Unigenitus  jusqu'a  la  mort  de  Louis  XIV.;  Bigelow,  Molinos  the 
Quietist;  Guerrier,  Madame  Guyon,  sa  vie,  sa  doctrine  et  son  mfluence;  Matter^ 
Le  mysticisme  en  France  au  temps  de  Feuelon;  Bausset,  Histoire  de  Bossuet,  4 
vols.,  and  Histoire  de  Fenelon,  4  vols.;  Rdaume,  Histoire  de  Bossuet,  3  vols.; 
Fhl'lipeaux,  Relation  de  I'origine,  du  progres  et  de  la  coudamnation  du  Quidtisme; 
Dubois,  Histoire  de  I'abbd  de  Rauc^,  with  the  works  of  Arnauid^  Fascai,  lUadatne 
Guyon,  Bossuet  and  Fenelon. 


LECTURE  29. 


THE  LAST  YEARS  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  LOUIS  XIV. 

The  government  of  France  during  the  last  thirty  years  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  influenced  by  Madame  de  Maintenon^  but  carried  on  by  the 
King  in  spite  of  his  decreasing  powers  and  increasing  belief  in  himself; 
he  devoted  himself  more  and  more  to  foreign  politics  and  the  question 
of  the  Spanish  Succession,  leaving  internal  administration  to  his  minis- 
ters, who  inherited  the  offices  of  Colbert  and  Louvois  without  their 
ability.  ' 

The  change  in  the  King's  character  between  the  Treaties  of  Nimeguen 
and  the  outbreak  of  war  with  the  League  of  Augsburg :  Louis  XIV. 
becomes  moral  and  religious  ;  the  gaiety  of  the  Court  disappears  ;  it 
becomes  more  ceremonious  ;  the  King  governed  by  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon  and  his  confessors  ;  the  great  result  of  this  change  of  character, 
^he  Revocation  of  the  Edict-of  Nantes  (1685). 

Character  and  position  of  Fran^oise  d'Aubigne,  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon  (b.  1635,  d.  17 19):  her  previous  career;  her  rivalry  with  Madame 
de  Montespan;  reconciled  the  king  and  queen  together;  after  the  death 
of  the  queen  (1683),  secretly  married  to  Louis  XIV.;  nature  of  her 
influence  at  court ;  her  ardent  zeal  for  the  Catholic  religion  and 
prudery;  her  difficult  position  ;  her  foundation  of  Saint  Cyr. 


8o  Last   Years  of  Louis  XIV. 

Character  and  influence  of  Pere  La  Chaise,  confessor  of  Louis  XIV. 
(1675-1709),  and  of  his  successor,  Pere  Letellier  (1709-15);  they 
directed  the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  the  king  in  favor  of  the  Jesuits;  the 
persecution  of  the  Huguenots  and  the  Jansenists. 

The  ministers  of  the  last  years  of  Louis  XIV. :  their  inability  to  con- 
trol or  oppose  the  King;  they  acted  as  head  clerks  and  feared  responsi- 
bility; the  typical  minister,  Michel  de  Chamillart;  the  last  ministers; 
Boucherat  (1685-99),  Louis  Phelypeaux,  Comte  de  Pont^chartram 
(1699-1714)  and  Daniel  Voysin  (1714-15),  Chancellors;  Torcy  (1696- 
1715),  foreign  affairs;  Le  Peletier  (1684-89),  Louis,  Comte  de  Pontchar- 
train  (1689-99),  Chamillart  (1699- 1708)  and  Desmarets  (1708-15), 
finances;  Barbezieux  (1691-1701),  Chamillart  (1701-1709)  and  Daniel 
Voysin  (1709-14),  war;  Louis,  Comte  de  Pontchartrain  (1690-93),  and 
Jerome,  Comte  de  Pontchartrain  (1693-17 15),  marine. 

The  French  nation  approved  the  successful  war  of  1688-97  against 
)  the  League  of  Augsburg,  but  welcomed  the  Treaties  of  Ryswick;  gen- 
eral delight  at  the  acceptance  of  the  Spanish  Succession  for  the  Duke 
of  Anjou;  "  the  Pyrenees  have  ceased  to  exist";  confidence  felt  by  the 
people  in  the  success  of  Louis  XIV. 

Surprise  felt  at  the  defeats  of  Blenheim  and  Ramillies;  general  dis- 
sJJL  content  at^  the  mismanageaient_of  Chamillart;  his  financial  methods, 
,.jjJ*^\)i\^  creation  and  sale  of  sinecure  ofiBces;  Chamillart  made  the  scapegoat 
>^^^  and  succeeded  by  Desmarets,  the  nephew  of  Colbert  (1708);  improve- 
ment of  credit;  the  loans  of  Desmarets;  the  armies  thus  raised  defeated; 
despair  of  the  French  people  after  the  defeat  of  Oudenarde^  (  -  ^  '--^  inrw^i  j 

The  terrible  winter  of  1708-1709:  general  misery  of  the  people;  the 
loss  of  Lille  left  the  way  open  to  Paris ;  the  appeal  of  Louis  XIV.  to 
his  people,  on  the  advice  of  Torcy;  France  rallied  round  the  King  ;  vol- 
untary gifts  to  the  royal  treasury;  melting  down  of  the  royal  plate; 
ladies  contributed  their  jewelry;  result  of  the  wave  of  enthusiasm,  to 
make  Louis  XIV.  persist  in  his  resistance  ;  effect  of  the  battle  of  Mal- 
plaquet ;  the  rising  of  Spain  and  the  accession  of  the  Tory  Ministry  in 
England  enabled  Louis  XIV.  to  get  much  better  terms  at  Utrecht  and 
Rastadt  than  had  ever  been  expected  by  him ;  his  position  at  the  close 
of  the  war ;  France  retained  most  of  the  towns  in  Europe  which  had 
been  gained  at  Ryswick,  and  only  lost  Acadia  in  North  America. 


Last  Years  of  Louis  XIV.  8l 

Religious  persecution  increased  in  France  during  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  :  the  suppression  of  the  Camisards  in  the  Cevennes 
( 1 703-1 705);  Letellier  increased  the  King's  ardor  against  the  Jan- 
senists;  destruction  of  Port  Royal  (17 10);  Louis  XIV. 's  indignation  at 
the  opposition  made^xthe  Parlement  of  Paris,  led  by  D'Aguesseau,  to 
registering  the  bull  Unigenitus ;  his  intention  of  deposing  the  bishops 
who  favored  Jansenism ;  influence  of  Letellier. 

Last  year  of  Louis  XIV. 's  foreign  policy  :  his  intrigues  with  the 
English  Jacobites  to  secure  the  accession  of  the  Catholic  ' '  Old  Pre- 
tender "  in. England ;  a  fleet  prepared  for  the  support  of  the  Pretender. 

Bad  effect  of  the  financial  maladministration:  decline  of  agricultural, 
industrial  and  commercial  prosperity;  Vauban's  Dzjne  Roy  ale  published 
(1707). 

Gloom  of  the  Court  during  the  last  years  of  the  life  of  Louis  XIV. : 
contrast  with  its  opening  years;  death  of  the  Dauphin,  only  son  of 
Louis  XIV.  (14  April,  1711);  his  education  by  Bossuet ;  his  three  sons: 
'T-'-fTfLouis,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  educated  by  F^nelon,  died  18  Feb.,  17 12, 
g^  leavmg  an  only  child,  who  succeeded  as  Louis  XV.;  (2)  Philip^Duke 
of  Anjou,  became  King  of  Spain  as  Philip  V.  in  1700;  (3)  Charles, 
Duke  of  Berry^died  4  May,  17 14;  the  illegitimate  children  of  Louis 
XIV.;  his  fondness  for  them ;    rank  and  favors  bestowed  upon  them. 

Death  of  Louis  XIV.  (i  Sept.,  1715):  effect  of  his  reign  on  France 
and  Europe  ;  his  personal  character. 

Louis  XIV.  andAgia  :  theFrench  East  India  Company;  foundation 
of  Pondicherry'^yr^T^j.  '^aken  by  the  Dutch  (1693),  but  restored  to 
France  (1698);  embassy  to  Siam  (1685). 

Louis  XIV.  and  America  :  the  development  of  Canada  ;  the  work  of 
the  Jesuits  ;  the  government  of  Frontenac  (1672-82  and  1689-98);  La 
Salle's  voyage  down  the  Mississippi  (1682);  first  French  settlement 
in  Louisiana  (1699).  ^       0 

Authorities:  Of  the  secondary  antborities  cited  under  Lecture  16,  Vo/- 
iaire,  Baussei  aud  Martin  ;  of  those  cited  under  Lecture  17,  Michel  Bind  Mellion; 
of  those  cited  under  Lecture  19,  Noailles  2in6.  Geffroy;  of  those  cited  under  Lecture 
24,  Moret  and  Krohn,  are  still  useful ;  and  may  be  supplemented  for  the  light 
thrown  on  the  character  of  Madame  de  Maiutenon  by  Th.  Lavallee,  Histoire  de 
la  maison  royale  de  Saint  Cyr;  by  Provari,  Vie  du  Dauphin,  p^re  de  Louis  XV., 


82  Literature  in  the  lyth  Century. 

2  vols.;  by  Castonnet  des  Fosses,  L'Inde  frau^aise  uvant  Dupleix ;  by  Lanier, 
ifetude  historique  sur  les  relations  de  la  France  et  du  royaume  de  Siam  de  1662  ^ 
1703,  and  by  Farkman,  Count  Frontenac  and  New  France  under  Louis  XIV.,  The 
Jesuits  in  America  in  the  17th  century,  and  La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great 
West.  For  the  administration  of  Louis  XIV.  see  Dareste,  Lugay,  Nervo  and 
Clamageran,  cited  under  Lecture  8,  and  Clement,  Histoire  du  systeme  protecteur 
en  France  depuis  le  ministere  de  Colbert ;  Reuss,  L' Alsace  au  XVIIieme  siecle ; 
Thomas,  Une  province  sous  Louis  XIV.,  situation  politique  et  administrative  de  la 
Bourgogne  de  1661  a  1715  ;  Monin,  Essai  sur  I'histoire  administrative  du  Langue- 
doc  pendant  I'intendance  de  Basville  (1685-1719);  Marchand,  Un  intendant  sous 
Louis  XIV.,  etude  sur  1' administration  de  Lebret  en  Provence  (1687-1704),  and 
Arbois  de  Jubainville,  L'administration  des  intendants  d'apres  les  archives  de  1* 
Aube.  Among  primary  authorities  on  administration  and  finance  Depping, 
Boislisle  and  Foucault,  cited  under  Lecture  16,  should  be  supplemented  by  Es- 
nault,  Michel  Chamillart,  correspondance  et  papiers  in^dits  ;  by  Desmarets, 
Memoire  sur  l'administration  des  finances  depuis  le  20  fevrier  1708  jusqu'au  i  sep- 
tembre  1715,  and  by  Vauban,  Projet  d'une  Dime  royale  ;  while  for  the  Court  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  his  personality  during  the  latter  years  of  his  reign  to  the  Corre- 
spondance of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  the  Letters  of  the  Diichesse  d'Orlians  and 
the  Memoires  of  Madame  de  Caylus,  Choisy  and  Torcy,  cited  under  Lecture  19, 
must  be  added  the  Duchesse  de  Bourgogne,  Lettres  et  correspondance,  ed.  Gag- 
ni^re;  Anthoine,  La  mort  de  Louis  XIV.,  journal  des  Anthoine,  ed.  Drumo7it; 
the  Journal  of  Dangeau,  vols.  7-15  ;  the  :^crits  inddits,  ed.  Fraug^re,  6  vols,  and, 
above  all,  the  Memoires  of  the  Due  de  Saint-Simon  ed.  CMruel,  21  vols  ;  the 
famous  work  of  Saint-Simon,  however,  must  be  read  with  Cf  uticn  and  on  this  sub- 
ject reference  may  be  made  to  Chh'uel,  Saint-Simon  considere  comme  historien  de 
Louis  XIV.,  and  to  Baschet^  Le  Due  de  Saint-Simon,  son  cabiucit  et  Vhistorique  de 
ses  manuscrits. 


LECTURE  30.  ^' 


/ 


LITERATURE  AND  PHILOSOPHY  IN  THE  17TH  CENTURY. 


Importance  of  the  17th  century  literature  :  the  literary  languages  of 
Europe  created  ;  development  from  the  study  of  the  classics,  which 
characterized  the  Renaissance,  into  the  use  of  vernaculars  ;  effect  of  this 
literary  movement  on  the  growth   of  nationalities  ;  the  study  of  the 


Literature  iH  the  xyth  Century.  83 

classics  as  models  continued  ;  literature  ceased  to  concern  itself  mainly 
with  religion  and  dealt  with  more  sides  of  human  interest. 

Spain  produced  the  first  man  of  letters  of  genius  of  the  17th  century: 
the  life,  character  and  works  of  Cervantes  (1547-16 16)  ;  Don  Quixote 
and  its  effects;  the  Spanish  drama;  Lope  de  Vega  (1562-1635)  and 
Calderon  (1600-87). 

The  Elizabethan  period  of  English  literature  :  Shakespeare  (1564- 
16 16)  and  his  contemporaries  and  successors  ;  the  English  drama  ;  the 
growth  of  English  prose  ;  Bacon  (i56i-i626)y^^vyjN>  v>nfJ>VA 

Development  of  French  literature  under  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  :  the 
Academic  ^rangaise  founded  1635  ;  Malherbe  (i  555-1628);  La  Roche- 
foucauld (1630^)  ;  the  application  of  literature  to  politics  ;  tTie  ^az- 
arinades;  journalism  ;  the  rise  of  the  French  drama  ;  Pierre  Corneille 
(1606-84). 

The  Age  of  Louis  XIV  :  the  classic  or  "  golden  "  age  of  French  lit- 
erature ;  literature  owed  to  Louis  XIV.  patronage,  but  not  inspiration  ; 
the  greatest  writers  of  the  time  were  born  and  had  begun  to  write  before 
Louis  XIV.   impressed   his   personality  on   France  ;  tragedy  :  Racijie 
(1639-99);  comedy:  Moliere  (1622-73)  ;  poetry  :  influence  of  classicism; 
correctness  took   the  place  of  inspiration  ;  Boileau  (1636-17 11),    the 
critic,  and  his  influence  ;  development  of  French  prose  :  Pascal  (1623- 
62);  the  influence  of  Port  Royal;  La  Fontaine  (1621-95)  and  his  Fables; 
La  Bruyere  (1644-96)  and  his  Characters ;  ficjion  ^^Idlle^e  Scudery  X»^ 
(1607-1701)  ;  Fenelon  (1651-1715);   Telimaque  ;  theology  and  history  :  ^^'^ 
Bossuet  ( 1 627-1 704)  ;  the  great  French  preachers,  Bossuet,  BourdalouVf^ 
(1632-1704)   and   Flechier  (1632-1710)  ;  memoir- writers  :  Madame  de^v--»- 
Motteville   (1621-89),    Cardinal   de   Retz   (1614-79)  and  Saint-Simon 
(1675-1755)  ;  letter  writers  :  Madame  de  Sevigne  (1626-96). 
.    Growth  of  taste  for  literature  in  France  :  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet 
'^  ^gl^nd  the  "  grecieuses  "  ;  their  successors. 

^'^T     Tendency  of  later  writers  of  the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.  to  fulsome  adu- 
A  -^    lation  of  the  king. 

English  literature  of  the  Puritan  period  :  Milton  (1608-74). 

Influence  of  the  Age  of  Louis  XIV.  on  the  literature  of  other  countries: 
in  Germany,  French  became  the  language  of  the  courts  and  educated 
people  ;  consequent  sterility  of  German  literature  ;  in  Italy  poetry  on 


84  ^^^  2^  ih^  ^7^^^  Century, 

classical  lines  was  produced;  Tassoni  (1565-1655),  Guidi  (1650-1712), 
and  Filicaja  ( 1 642-1 707);  in  Spain  pedantry  of  criticism  caused  sterility; 
in  England  the  literature  of  the  reign  of  Charles  ll.  stowed  French  in- 
fluence ;  Dryden  (1631-1701)  ;  Congreve  (1670-1729). 

Relation  of  literature  to  philosophy  in  the  17th  century. 

Revolution  effected  in  philosophical  method  by  Bacon  (i 561 -1626)  ; 
Descartes  ( 1596-1650)  destroyed  the  scholastic  methods;  the  speculations 
of  Spinoza  (1632-77)  ;  the  theories  of  Leibnitz  (1646-1716). 

In  political  philosophy  France  produced  no  great  thinkers  :  but 
Hobbes  (1588-1679)  and  Locke  (1632- 1704)  started  the  lines  of  thought 
which  were  to  lead  to  great  results  in  the  i8th  century. 

Grotius(i583-i646)  and  Puffendorf  (1632-94)  created  and  developed 
international  law. 

Variety  of  the  literary  and  philosophical  movements  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury ;  their  diverse  characteristics. 


LECTURE  3L 


ART  AND  SCIENCE  IN  THE   17TH  CENTURY. 

The  revolution  in  thought  and  method  effected  by  Bacon  and  Des- 
cartes created  amew  era  in  science  :  experiments  took  the  place  of  the- 
ories ;  andtneiTth  century  is  marked  by  many  important  scientific 
discoveries  ;  on  the  other  hand  art  tended  to  lose  its  virility  and,  de- 
spite two  painters  of  genius,  the  art  of  the  17th  century  is  governed  by 
classical  conventions  ;  and  is  thus  on  an  inferior  level  to  its  condition 
during  the  Renaissance. 

The  Spanish  school  of  painting  :  Velasquez  (1599-1660);  Murillo 
(1617-82);  the  greatness  of  Velasquez.  e.rv^f   a  o^^ 

The  Flemish  school  of  painting  :  Rubens  (1577-1640);  Van  DyckJ^^ 
(1599-1641)  ;    Teniers   the  elder   (1582-1649) ;    Teniers   the'"y^unger      5 

(1610-85).  V^tr.-\>^..S^."wvA^A^J>^^- 

The  Dutch  school  of  painting  :  tHe  isolated  greatness  of  Rembrandt 


Art  in  the  lyth  Century,  85 

van  Ryn_( 1 608-69);  characteristics  of  the  Dutch  gchopl  ;  Frans  ^als 
(1584-1666);  Gerard^u^w.i^^,i3-8o);  Jan^te^(  1 626-79)^P3^ijP^ 
ter  (1625-54);  Ruys^^^eljj  (1630-81);  Cuyp  (1066-62);  W6uve?ma3 
(1620-68);  Van  der  Velde  ([1633-1707). 

The  Italian  school  of  painting  :  its  decline  from  the  great  .days  of>^^ 
Italian  art  into  septim^ntaJ^sm^^^jGuM     Reni  (i  574-1642);  ^ssoferrato 
(1605-85);  SalvaJinL-Rosa\i6i5-73)/ 

The  French  school  of  painting  ;  its  conventionality  ;  Poussin  (1593- 
1672);  Le  Brun  (1619-90);  Claude  Lorraine  (1600-^.^^^^^,^  c      1^ 

The  English  school  of  painting :  de^ted^to  oortrai^;  influence  of 
VanDyck;  Lely  (1618-80);   Kneller(T648-i7S3)!:  ""^  " 

Architecture  dominated  by  classic  ideals  and  styles  :  their  inappro- 
priateness ;  the  forms  patronized  by  Louis  XIV.  adopted  in  other 
European  countries.  ^^       A^jt^*^-^'^  '* 

The  other  arts  :  absence  of  great  sculptors ;  improvement  in  engrav- 
ingj  classical  style  of  decoration. 

VCommencement  of  classical  gardening  :  the  gardens  of  Vaux  and 
Versailles;  Le  N6tre  (1613-1701).  .  ^  Ji>  ...v.^«J^  ^^-^ 

"^usic  in  the  17th  century  :  thedevelopment  of Jheopera  in  Italy  ; 
jis  popularity ;  mdodycuffivatea  as  weUas  harmony ;  th^e  Roman 
school;  Carissimi  Ti '^82-1672);  his  church  music  ;  introduction  of  the 
orchestra  into  the  churches  ;  his  cantatas  and  songs;  Scarlatti  (1659- 
1725),  founder  of  the  Neapolitan  school ;  his  songs  and  operas  ;  Lully  pc 
-.^1633-87)  developed  the  music  written  for  masques  ;  he  became  the 
chief  musician  to  Louis  XIV.;  his  operas,  ballets  ana  musical  come- 
dies; his  services  to  theatrical  music  ^  Fr^gc^  •  ^^^  a^gpciation  with  - 
Moliere  and  Quinault ;  music  mmglaiS^  ;   Purcell  (1058-95). 

Bacon  and  Descartes,  by  overthrowing  old  methods  of  thinking  and      ^ 
arguing,  prepare  the  way  for  experimental  science  :  scientific  experi- 
ments become  fashionable;  foundation  of  the  Royal  Society  (1662); 
science  not  yet  divided  and  differentiated  ;   attempts  at  universality  of 
scientific  knowledge  ;  Leibnitz  (1646-17 16). 

The  great  mathematicians :  Napier,  the  inventor  of  logarithms 
(1550-1617);  Descartes  (1596-1650)  and  the  application  of  numerical 
exponents  to  geometry;  Pascal  (1623-62)  and  conic  sections  ;  Newton 
(1642-1727)  and  the  infinitesimal  calculus  and  mathematical  optics; 


i 


86  Sciefice  in  the  lyth  Century. 

\h!^  Principia  :  Bernouilli  (i  654-1 705)  and  the  application  of  the  cal- 
culus. 

The  great  biologists:  Harvey  and  the  demonstration  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  (1578-1657);  Sydenham  (1624-89);  Boerhaave  (1668-1738)!^^ 

The  great  astronomers  :  Galileo  (1564-1642)  and  the  demonstration  wu-» 
that  the  earth  moves  round  the  sun  ;  Kepler  (1571-1631)  and  the  laws 
of  planetary  motion  ;  Cassini  (1625-17 12)  and  the  measurement  of  the 
earth;  Huyghens  (1629-95)  ^^^  the  discovery  of  the  satellites  of 
Saturn  ;  Newton  (1642-1727)  and  the  lunar  theory ;  Gregory  (1633-75) 
and  the  invention  of  the  reflecting  telescope;  Halley  (1656-1742)  and 
eclipses. 

The  great  physicists  :   GaUl^o  (1564-1642)  the  inventor  of  the  ther-l  ^^ 
mometer  and  the  pendulum ;  Toriicelli  (1608-47)  the  inventor  of  the  ba-l 
rometer ;  Descartes  and  the  law  of  refraction  ;  his  theory  of  **  whorls"; 
Boyle  (1626-91)  and  the  air  pump;  Huyghens  and  the  pendulum  clock  ; 
Newton  and  the  theory  of  gravitation. 

These  names  and  discoveries  only  indicate  the  progress  and  first 
gains  of  experimental  science;  the  17th  century  was  in  this  respect 
also  the  commencement  of  riodern  history. 

Effect  on  the  material  conditions  of  life  of  the  discoveries  of  men  of 
science  ;  contrast  between  the  intellectual  and  material  conditions  of 
life  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 


\£^ 


I.ECTURE  32. 


,   THE  REGENCY  OF  ORLEANS,  AND  THE  SCHEMES  OF  ALBERONI. 

A  

Condition  of  France  at  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  (i  September,  17 15); 
accession  of  his  great-grandson  as  Louis  XV.  (b.  15  Feb.,  1710). 

The  Parlement  of  Paris  revoked  the  will  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  (b.  1674)  became  Regent  of  France  with  full  powers 
(2  Sept.,  17 15);  revocation  of  the  precedence  granted  to  the  illegitimate 
children  of  Louis  XIV.  (26  Aug.,  1718). 


Alberoni,  87 

The  character  of  the  Regent :  his  attitude  towards  politics  ;  his  agent 
and  minister,  the  Abbe  Dubois,  (b.  1656);  the  character  of  Dubois. 

The  loieigu  policy  of  the  Regent :  the  schemes  of  Alberoni  caused 
the  Regent  and  Dubois  to  enter  into  a  close  alliance  with  England 
(1716)  ;  influence  of  the  English  ambassador,  Stair. 

The  condition  of  Spain  in  1715  :  marriage  of  Philip  V.  to  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  of  Parma  (b.  1692,  d.  1766)  ;  her  character  and  ambition; 
dismissal  of  Madame  des  Ursins  (25  Dec,  1714)  ;  Alberoni  by  his.  influ- 
ence over  the  queen  became  the  director  of  Spanish  policy  ;  character 
and  ideas  of  Cardinal  Alberoni  (b.  1664,  d.  1752)  ;  his  administration; 
Philip  V.  hoped  to  enforce  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  France  in  case  of 
the  death  of  Louis  XV. ;  the  queen  aimed  at  obtaining  Parma  and  Tus- 
cany for  her  children. 

The  attitude  of  England  :  the  accession  of  George  I.  placed  the  Whigs 
firmly  in  power  ;  Stanhope,  a  friend  of  the  Emperor,  became  the  direc- 
tor of  English  foreign  policy;  the  principal  objects  of  English  policy, 
the  maintenance  of  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht,  and  the  exclusion  of  the 
Stuarts  from  the  English  throne;  failure  of  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1715 
in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England. 

The  alliance  formed  between  England  and  France  joined  by  the 
United  Provinces  and  became  the  Triple  Alliance  ;  the  execution  of 
the  Treaties  of  Utrecht  guaranteed  b)^  the  allies  (4  Jan.,  1717). 

Causes  of  the  renewal  of  war  between  Spain  and  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.;  the  Spaniards  conquered  Sardinia  (Aug.,  17 17)  and  at- 
tacked Sicily  (July,  171 8). 

The  Emperor  joined  the  Triple  Alliance,  which  thus  became  the 
Quadruple  Alliance  (2  Aug.,  17 18). 

The  Spanish  War :  Byng  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  off"  Cape  Pas- 
saro  (\\  Aug.,  17 18);  a  French  army  under  Berwick  invaded  Spain 
(April,  1719). 

The  plots  of  Alberoni :  he  endeavored  to  induce  Sweden  and  Russia 
to  support  the  Jacobites  ;  he  prepared  a  fleet  for  the  Old  Pretender  ;  he 
conspired  with  the  illegitimate  children  of  Louis  XIV.  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  regency  of  Orleans  \  discovery  ef  the  conspiracy  of  Cel- 
lamare  (8  Dec,  17 18). 

All  the  plots  of  Alberoni  foiled  ;  exiled  from  Spain  (5  Dec,  1719). 


88  The  Regeyit  Orleans. 

Peace  signed  between  Spain  and  the  Quadruple  Alliance  (i  Feb., 
1720):  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  obtained  Sicily  ;  Victor  Amadeus  II. 
of  Savoy  received  Sardinia  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Sicily  ;  the 
succession  to  Parma  and  Tuscany  guaranteed  to  the  children  of  Philip 
V.  by  his  second  marriage  ;  Saint-Simon's  embassy  to  Spain  ;  arrange- 
ments made  for  the  marriage  of  Louis  XV.  to  a  Spanish  infanta  and 
of  the  two  elder  sons  of  the  King  of  Spain  to  two  daughters  of  the  Re- 
gent Orleans. 

The  internal  history  of  France  during  the  regency  of  Orleans  :  ces- 
sation of  the  persecution  of  the  Jansenists  ;  exile  of  Pere  Letellier  ; 
John  Law  (b.  1671,  d.  1729)  and  his  financial  schemes  ;  the  mania  for 
speculation  in  France  ;  the  Mississippi  Company  ;  ruinous  results  of 
Law's  administration  ;  dismissal  of  Law  (1720);  Dubois  made  a  cardi- 
nal (1721). 

Louis  XV.  declared  of  age  (19  Feb.,  1723);  death  of  Dubois  (10 
Aug.,  1723)  and  of  the  Regent  Orleans  (7  Dec,  1723). 

Authorities :  Among  books  in  English  on  this  period  see  Moore,  Lives  of  Al- 
beroni,  Ripperda  and  Pombal  ;  Perkins,  France  under  the  Regency,  and  Arm- 
strongs Elizabeth  Farnese,  the  "Termagant  of  Spain".  Among  secondary 
authorities  may  be  noted  Cojxre,  Memoirs  of  the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House 
of  Bourbon,  vol.  ii.;  BeCourcy,  L'Espagne  apres  la  paix  d'Utrecht  (1713-1715)  ; 
Combes,  La  princesse  des  Urs-ins  ;  Seilhac,  L'abbe  Dubois;  Wiesener,  Le  Regent, 
I'abb^  Dubois  et  les  Anglais;  Chdteauneuf,  Histoire  du  regent,  Philippe  d'Or- 
l^ans ;  Thiers,  Histoire  de  Law,  translated  by  F.  Fiske,  as  The  Mississippi  Bubble ; 
Horn,  Jean  Law;  Cochut,  Law,  son  systeme  et  son  ^poque;  Vuitry,  Le  desordre  des 
finances  et  les  exces  de  la  speculation  a  la  fin  du  regne  de  Louis  XIV.  et  au  com- 
mencement du  regne  de  Louis  XV.;  Sichi,  Les  derniers  jansenistes,  vol.  i.;  Rous- 
set  de  Missy,  Histoire  du  Cardinal  Alberoni  jusqu'  a  1719  ;  Vaiouf,  La  conspiration 
de  Cellamare  ;  Lemontey,  Histoire  de  la  Rdgence,  et  de  la  minorite  de  Louis  XV., 
and  O.  Weber,  Die  Quadrupel-AUi^nz  vom  Jahre  1718.  For  the  part  played  by 
England  see  Stanhope,  History  of  E"glan<l,  vol.  i.;  Lecky,  History  of  England  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century,  vol.  i.  The  primary  authorities  for  the  History  of 
Spain  include  Princess  des  Ursins,  Lettres  in^dites,  ed.  Geffroy,  and  Correspond- 
ance  avec  Madame  de  Maintenon;  the  Apologia  dell'  operazione  del  Card.  AlHeroni 
durante  il  suo  ministerio,  and  Alberoni,  Lettres  intimes  adressees  au  comte  Rocca, 
e^.Bourgeois;  Baudrillart,  PhilippeV.  d'Espagne  et  la  cour  de  France, vol. ii.  ;^Sii«^ 
Simon,  Lettres  et  depeches  sur  I'ambassade  d'Espagne,  ed.  Drumont.  For  the  his- 
tory of  the  Regency  in  France  see  Dubois _  Memoires  secretes  et  correspondance  m6- 
dite,  ed.  Sevelinges,  and  (he  Memoires  of  Saint  Simon,  Villars,  Noailles,  Madame 


Death  of  Charles  XII.  89 

de  Staal-Delaunay,  Dudos  and  Mathieu  MaraU,  the  Journal  o{  Dangeau^  vols,  xvi.- 
xviii.,  and  Ruvat,  Journal  de  la  R^gence  (1715-23),  ed.  Campardon.  Many  docu- 
ments of  importance  are  contained  in  Lamberty,  M^moires  pour  servir  k  rhistoire 
du  XVlIJi^me  siecle,  vols,  viii-xii. 


LECTURE  33. 


THE  END   OF  THE  NORTHERN  WAR. 

The  military  situation  in  Northern  Europe  at  the  time  when  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  suddenly  arrived  in  Stralsund  from  Adrianople  (,22 
Nov.,  1 7 15):  occupation  of  Pomerania  by  the  Danes,  Saxons,  Russians 
and  Prussians  (17 16). 

Charles  XII.  appointed  Gortz  his  chief  minister ;  the  schemes  of 
Gortz  ;  his  relations  with  Alberoni ;  Gortz  endeavored  to  make  peace 
between  Sweden  and  Russia  ;  Peter. the  Great  not  unwilling  so  long  as 
the  Baltic  provinces  which  he  had  conquered  were  guaranteed  to  him. 

CEarles  XII.  invaded  Norway  (17 16);  George  I.  of  England,  who 
had  purchased  Bremen  and  Verden  from  the  Danes,  was  determined  to 
support  Denmark  ;  second  invasion  of  Norway  by  the  Swedes  (1718); 
Charles  XII.  killed  at  Frederikshall  (11  Dec,  1718). 

Revolution  in  Sweden  :  Ulrica  Eleanor,  younger  sister  of  Charles 
XII.,  declared  Queen,  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  son  of  his  elder  sister, 
being  passed  over  ;  the  monarchy  of  Sweden  made  elective  ;  all  power 
granted  to  an  oligarchy  of  nobles  ;  execution  of  Gortz  (13  March,  17 19). 

The  Swedish  Government  resolved  to  make  peace  :  George  I.  con- 
firmed in  the  possession  of  Bremen  and  Verden  (20  Nov.,  17 19)  ;  treaty 
signed  with  Augustus  I.  of  Poland;  by  treaty  with  Prussia  (21  Jan., 
1720),  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia,  obtained  the  district  of  Pomer- 
ania between  the  Oder  and  the  Peene,  including  Stetthij  with  the 
islands  of  Usedom  and  Wollin  ;  by  treaty  with  Denmark  (9  June,  1720), 
Sweden  recovered  the  rest  of  Western  Pomerania  and  the  island  of 
Riigen,  but  confirmed  the  cession  of  Schleswig  to  Denmark  ;  by  the 
Treaty  of  Nystadt  with  Russia  (10  Sept.,  1721  j,  Sweden  surrendered  the 


90  Death  of  Peter  the  Great. 

provinces  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland  to  Russia,  but  recovered 
the  rest  of  Finland. 

These  treaties,  which  concluded  the  Northern  War,  reduced  Sweden 
to  the  rank  of  a  second-rate  power,  and  marked  the  advance  of  Russia 
and  Prussia  towards  the  supremacy  of  the  Baltic. 

Condition  of  Poland  during  the  reign  of  Augustus  I.  of  Saxony  (17  lo- 
34)  ;  renewal  of  his  scheme  to  obtain  the  hereditary  throne  of  Poland, 
guaranteed  by  the  neighboring  powers,  at  the  price  of  ceding  Royal  or 
Polish  Prussia  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  eastern  I^ithuania  to  Russia  and 
Zips  to  the  Kmperor. 

Condition  of  Denmark  under  Frederick  IV.  (1699-1730)  :  development 
of  Danish  trade  ;  good  administration  ;  encouragement  of  education ; 
exploration  of  Greenland  ;  the  Moravian  missions. 

The  last  years  of  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great :  his  visit  to  Paris 
(1717)  ;  execution  of  his  only  son  and  heir- apparent,  Alexis,  (7  July, 
1718J;  I?eter's  ukase  giving  the  reigning  sovereign  the  right  to  nominate 
his  successor  (1722);  the  development  of  the  European  policy  of  Peter; 
the  title  of  Tsar  translated  as  Emperor  of  All  the  Russias  (1721); 
difficulties  met  with  in  establishing  a  Western  system  of  administration 
in  Russia;  the  "  Old  Russian  "  party;  Peter  the  Great's  Asiatic  policy; 
his  war  with  Persia  ;  he  lays  down  the  lines  of  future  Russian  develop- 
ment; coronation  of  Catherine  as  Tsaritsa  (18  May  1724). 

Death  of  Peter  the  Great  (8  Feb.,  1725)  ;  his  character  and  greatness. 

Reign  of  Catherine  I. ;  influence  of  Menshikov;  importance  of  Oster- 
mann;  establishment  of  the  Supreme  Privy  Council;  treaty  with  the 
Emperor  (6  Aug.,  1726);  foundation  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  (1726); 
explorations  of  Bering  (b.  1680,  d.  1741);  death  of  Catherine  I.  (17 
May,  1727). 

Reign  of  Peter  II.  (b.  17 15),  son  of  Alexis ;  exile  of  Menshikov  (3 
Oct.,  1727);  influence  of  the  Dolgoruki  family;  death  of  Peter  II.  ("30 
Jan.,  1730). 

Anne,  Duchess  of  Courland  (b.  1693),  younger  daughter  of  Ivan 
V.  and  niece  of  Peter  the  Great,  declared  Tsaritsa. 

Authorities  :  See  books  mentioned  under  Lectures  21  and  22,  with  Allen,  His- 
toire  de  Danemark;  Baitiy  The  Pupils  of  Peter  the  Great;  Vogue,  Le  fils  de  Pierre 
le  Grand;  Herrmann,  Peter  der  Grosse  und  der  Za-evitsch  Alexei,  and  Pierre  Dol- 
goroukoWy  Memoires. 


Charles   VI.  and  the  Turks. 

LECTURE    34.       11^-^;—    V^ 


THE  POLICY  OF  THE  EMPEROR   CHARLES  VI. 

Charles  VI.  refused  to  recognize  Philip  V.  as  King  of  Spain  until 
after  the  successful  war  waged  by  the  Quadruple  Alliance  ;  improve- 
ment made  in  the  Austrian  position  in  Italy  by  the  exchange  of 
Sardinia  for  Sicily. 

The  Emperor  and  the  Turks  :  improvement  in  the  position  of  the 
Turks  since  the  Treaty  of  Carlowitz  (1699)  ;  they  recovered  Azov  from 
the  Russians  by  the  Treaty  of  the  Pruth  (lyri)  ;  under  the  influence 
of  the  Grand  Vizier,  Damad  Ali  Kumurdji,  the  Sultan,  Ahmad  III., 
declared  war  upon  the  Republic  of  Venice  (9  Dec,  17 14)  ;  the  Vizier 
conquered  the  Morea  (17 15),  and  laid  siege  to  Corfu  ;  heroic  defence  of 
Corfu  (1716);  the  Venetians  appealed  to  the  Emperor  for  help  ;  Charles 
VI.  declared  war  against  the  Turks. 

The  campaigns  of  Prince  Eugene  :  he  defeated  the  Turks  at  Peter- 
wardein  (5  Aug.,  17 16),  and  took  Temesvar  ;  he  besieged  Belgrade,  and 
won  his  greatest  victory  over  the  Turks  there  (16  Aug.,  1717) ;  sur- 
render of  Belgrade  to  the  Austrians. 

Peace  made  between  the  Emperor  and  the  Turks  at  Passarowitz,  (21 
July,  1718)  ;  by  this  treaty  Austria  received  the  Banat  of  Temesvar, 
completing  its  possession  of  Hungary,  and  the  city  of  Belgrade  ;  the 
Venetians  abandoned  the  Morea  to  the  Turks,  but  were  confirmed  in 
their  possession  of  Corfu,  and  received  certain  districts  in  Albania  and 
Dalmatia  ;  importance  of  the  treaty  of  Passarowitz ;  it  marked  the 
further  decline  of  the  Turkish  power  in  Europe. 

The  attitude  of  Charles  VI.  towards  Spain;  the  Congress  of  Cambrai 

(1724)- 

The  Emperor  and  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  :  the  terms  of  this  decree 

I  which  was  propounded  by  Charles  VI.  in  1713  ;  (i)  the  dominions  of 

^  the  House  of  Hapsburg  declared  indivisible  ;  (2)  male  heirs  to  succeed 

'\  by  primogeniture  ;  (3)  in  default  of  male  heirs  the  succession  to  devolve 

upon  the  female  heirs,  first  of  Charles  VI.,  then  of  Joseph  I.,  and 
\finally  of  Leopold  I. 


92  The  Pragmatic  Sanctio7i. 

As  the  Emperor  had  only  daughters,  he  endeavored  to  obtain  an  oath 
of  adhesion  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  from  the  different  states  forming 
the  Austrian  dominions,  and  a  guarantee  from  the  powers  of  Europe. 

The  different  provinces  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  assented  to  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  it  was  solemnly  promulgated  (6  Dec,  1724). 

The  desire  for  a  universal  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  the 
keynote  of  the  foreign  policy  of  Charles  VI. 

The  question  of  the  Ostend  Company,  founded  by  the  Emperor  in 
order  to  obtain  a  share  of  the  Asiatic  trade  (19  Dec,  1722);  the  English 
and  the  Dutch  opposed  the  new  Company  ;  the  Emperor  Charles  was 
thus  alienated  from  his  former  allies,  and  a  negotiation  was  entered  into 
with  Spain. 

The  policy  of  Spain  after  the  dismissal  of  Alberoni  :  the  abdication 
of  Philip  V.  (Jan.,  1724);  death  of  Louis  I.  (31  Aug.,  1724);  return  to 
the  throne  of  Philip  V. ;  the  Spanish  infanta  betrothed  to  Louis  XV, 
sent  back  to  Spain  (Feb.,  1725);  the  schemes  of  Rigg^a  (b.  1680,  d. 
1737):  an  alliance  signed  between  Charles  VI.  and  Philip  V.  at  Vienna 
(30  April,  1725);  Charles  VI.  renounced  his  claims  to  Spain,  promised 
to  secure  the  succession  to  Parma  and  Tuscany  to  Don  Carlos,  son  of 
Philip  V.  and  Elizabeth  Farnese,  and  agreed  to  aid  Spain  to  recover 
Gibraltar  and  Minorca  ;  Philip  V.  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
renounced  all  claims  to  Naples,  Sicily,  the  Milanese  and  the  Catholic 
Netherlands,  and  threw  open  all  Spanish  ports  to  the  Ostend  Company. 

Formation  of  the  League  of  Hanover  (23  Sept.,  1725),  in  opposition 
to  the  Austro- Spanish  Alliance  :  France  and  England  joined  by  the 
Dutch,  Denmark  and  Sweden. 

Catherine  I.  of  Russia  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  and  joined 
the  Austro-Spanish  Alliance  (6  Aug.,  1726),  and  her  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  King  Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia  (12  Oct.,  1726). 

Dismissal  of  Ripperda  (17  May,  1726);  attack  of  the  Spaniards  on 
Gibraltar. 

Change  of  power  in  France  :  the  Due  de  Bourbon  chief  minister 
(1723-26);  influence  of  Madame  de  Prie  ;  marriage  of  Louis  XV.  to 
Marie  Leczinska,  daughter  of  Stanislas,  ex-King  of  Poland  (4  Sept., 
1725);  Cardinal  Fleury  appointed  chief  minister  (11  June,  1726). 

A  general  European  war  averted  by  the  peace  policy  of  the  English 


The  Emperor  Charles    VI.  93 

and  French  ministers,  Walpole  (b.  1676,  d.  1745)  and  FIeury(b.  1653, 
d.  1743).  >v-..,oiiX  4  ^..cxJj^ 

Authorities :  Among  small  books  in  English  upon  the  reign  of  Charles 
VI.  may  be  noted  /,£g;^  Autriche-Hongrie,  translated  by  Mrs.  Birkbeck  Hill,  and 
for  the  war  with  the  Turks,  Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Ihe  chief 
secondary  authorities  on  Xustrian  history  of  this  time  are  Krones,  Hand- 
buch  der  Geschichte  CBsterreichs  ;  Arneth,  Karl  VI.  (in  Allgemeiue  Deutsche  Bio- 
graphie,  vol.  xv.);  Hq/ler,  Fragmente  zur  Geschichte  Kaiser  Karls  VI.  (Srtzungs- 
berichte  der  Kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,  vol.  Ix.,  Vienna,  1868); 
Beer,  Zur  Geschichte  der  Politik  Karls  VI.  (Historische  Zeitschrift,  1862); 
Ameth,  Prinz  Eugen,  vols,  ii,  iii ;  A.  Wolf,  Geschichte  der  pragmatischen  Sam  - 
tion  ;  Forster,  Die  Hofe  und  Kabineue  Europas  im  Achtzehnten  Jahrhundert ; 
Vehse,  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  Austria,  translated  by  Demmler  ;  VanRiiikel- 
ingen,  Geschiedenis  der  oosterryksche  Nederlanden  ;  Belgien  onder  Karel  VI. 
(1700-1740),  axidi Bidemtann,  Geschichte  der  (Esterreichischen  Gesammtstaatsidee. 
The  secondary  authorities  for  Turkish  history  are  Hammer,  Histoire  de  I'em- 
pire  ottoman,  and  Zi7ikeise7i,  Geschichte  des  osmanischen  Reichs  in  Europa.  For 
the  policy  of  Spain  see  Coxe,  Moore  and  Armstrong,  cited  under  Lecture  32,  with 
Syveton^  Le  Baron  de  Ripperda ;  Baudrillart,  Philippe  V.  et  la  cour  de  France, 
vol.  iii.;  Ripperda,  Memoirs,  and  Montgon,  M^moires  ;  and  for  England  Sta?ihope 
and  Lecky,  cited  under  Lecture  32,  with  Coxe,  Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
On  the  marriage  of  Louis  XV.  see  Raynal,  Le  manage  d'un  Roi.  As  primary 
authorities  for  the  Turkish  war  reference  should  be  made  to  Ameth,  Relationen 
der  Botschaften  Venedigs  iiber  CE)sterreich  im  iS**"  Jahrhundert  (in  the  Fontes 
rerum  Austriacarum,  vol.  xxii.),  and  Matuschka,  Feldzuge  des  Prinzen  Eugens,  and 
for  diplomatic  historv  to  Lettres  ec  Mdmoires  cnire  ic>  nuuistres  des  cours  de  la 
Grande-Bretagne,  de  France,  et  d'Hcp^gne  (1727),  and  the  texts  of  the  treaties. 


LECTURE  35. 


THE  WAR  OF  THE  POLISH  SUCCESSION. 

Charles  VI.  abandoned  Spain  and  made  peace  with  the  allies  of  the 
League  of  Hanover  C31  May,  1727),  suspending  the  Ostend  Company 
and  referring  other  disputed  questions  to  a  Congress  of  the  Powers. 

Spain  abandoned  the  siege  of  Gibraltar  and  made  peace  with  Eng- 


94  Fleury  and  Walpole. 

land  (5  March,  1728);  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  Soissons;  by  the 
Treaty  of  Seville  (9  Nov.,  1729)  Spain  made  an  oJBfensive  and  defensive 
alliance  with  England,  France  and  the  Dutch,  who  guarantee  the  suc- 
cession of  Don  Carlos  to  Parma  and  Tuscany. 

The  Treaty  of  Seville  accepted  by  the  Emperor  after  the  death  of  the 
last  Farnese  Duke  of  Parma  (16  March,  1731);  England  and  the  Dutch 
guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction;  Charles  VI.  dissolved  the  Ostend 
Company;  Don  Carlos  took  possession  of  Parma. 

The  Emperor  Charles  VI.  submitted  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  to  the 
Diet  of  the  Empire  (Jan.,  1732);  accepted  by  the  ecclesiastical  Electors 
and  the  Electors  of  Brandenburg  and  Hanover,  but  rejected  by  the 
Elector  Palatine  and  the  Electors  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria. 

The  internal  government  of  Charles  VI.:  influence  exercised  by 
Prince  Eugene  up  to  his  death  in  1736;  his  chief  ministers,  Sinzen- 
dorff,  State  Chancellor  (1705-42),  and  Gundacker  Thomas  Starhemberg, 
in  charge  of  the  finances  (1703-45). 

The  peace  policy  of  Cardinal  Fleury;  his  endeavors  to  improve  the 
finances  of  France;  Orry,  Controller- General  of  the  Finances  (1730-45); 
Chauvelin,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  (1727-37);  renewal  of  the  attack 
on  the  Jansenists,  which  involved  Fleury  in  conflicts  with  the  Parle- 
ment  of  Paris  (1729,  1731-32). 

The  peace  policy  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  had  become  Prime  Min- 
ister of  England  in  172 1;  his  foreign  policy  governed  by  commercial 
considerations;  his  power  increased  by  the  death  of  George  I.  (1727). 

In  spite  of  the  peaceful  tendencies  of  Walpole  and  Fleury,  the  death 
of  Augustus  I.,  King  of  Poland  and  Elector  of  Saxony  (i  Feb.,  1733), 
caused  a  general  war. 

The  two  chief  candidates  for  the  Polish  throne  were  Augustus,  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  son  of  the  late  king,  and  Stanislas  I^eczinski,  who  had 
been  king  from  1704  to  1709  and  was  father-in-law  of  Louis  XV.  of 
France. 

Stanislas  was  elected  king  (11  Sept.,  1733)  and  was  supported  by  a 
small  body  of  French  troops ;  an  opposition  diet  elected  Augustus  II. 
(24  Sept.,  1733)  ',  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  recognized  Augustus  in 
return  for  a  guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  the  Tsaritsa 
Anne  of  Russia  sent  troops  to  his  assistance. 


War  of  the  Polish  Succession.  95 

The  Russians  under  Miinnich  took  Dantzig  (9  July,  1734),  the  last 
refuge  of  Stanislas,  who  escaped  to  France ;  Biren  made  Duke  of  Cour- 
land(i737). 

Fleury  resolved  to  attack  the  Emperor  on  the  pretext  that  Charles 
VI.  had  shown  himself  hostile  to  Stanislas,  and  formed  the  League  of 
Turin  with  Spain  and  Sardinia  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Austrians  from 
Italy  (26  Sept.,  1733) ;  by  the  secret  treaty  of  the  Escurial  (7  Nov., 
1733)  a  close  alliance  was  formed  between  France  and  Spain ;  his  main 
intention  in  entering  upon  war  was  to  acquire  Lorraine  for  France,  an 
intention  quickened  by  the  betrothal  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  to 
Maria  Theresa,  elder  daughter  of  Charles  VI. 

The  campaign  of  1733  :  the  French,  under  Berwick,  conquered  Lor- 
raine, and  under  Villars  took  Milan  ,  Walpole  refused  to  assist  the  Em- 
peror;  campaign  of  1734  :  the  French  took  Philipsburg,  where  Berwick 
was  killed,  and  Don  Carlos  conquered  Naples  ;  campaign  of  1735  :  Don 
Carlos  conquered  Sicily ;  little  effected  in  Northern  Italy  and  on  the 
Rhine  ;  first  appearance  of  Russian  troops  in  Western  Europe,  an  army 
being  sent  by  the  Tsaritsa  Anne  to  the  help  of  Charles  VI. 

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  between  France  and  Austria  (3  Oct., 

1735)  : 

(i)  Stanislas  Leczinski  renounced  the  throne  of  Poland  to  Augustus 
of  Saxony,  and  received  the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  with  the  title  of  king. 

(2)  Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  the  future  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor, 
guaranteed  Tuscany  on  the  death  of  the  last  of  the  Medici. 

(3)  Don  Carlos  recognized  as  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  including  the 
Tuscan  presidios,  and  surrendered  the  duchy  of  Parma  to  the  Emperor. 

(4)  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  King  of  Sardinia,  received  Novara  and 
Tortona. 

(5)  France  to  receive  Lorraine  on  the  death  of  Stanislas. 

These  preliminaries  of  peace  were  eventually  ratified  in  the  Treaty  of 
Vienna  (18  Nov.,  1738),  when  France  also  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

Charles  VI.  endeavored  to  obtain  revenge  for  his  losses  in  the  War  of 
the  Polish  Succession  by  attacking  the  Turks  (1737),  who  were  since 
1736  at  war  with  Russia  ;  attitude  of  France  ;  Villeneuve  and  Bonneval ; 
the  Turks  generally  successful  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Belgrade  (i  Sept., 


96'^  Frederick    William  I.  of  Prussia. 

1739)  Austria  restored  to  the  Turks,  Belgrade,  Orsova,  and  all  the  terri- 
tories acquired  by  the  Treaty  of  Passarowitz,  except  Temesvar. 
Death  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  (20  Oct.,   1740). 

Authorities  :  For  the  military  history  of  the  War  of  the  Polish  Succession  see 
Pajol^  IvCS  Guerres  sous  Louis  XV.,  vols,  i.,  ii.,  Siwd.  Raihery,  Le  comte  de  Plelo  ; 
for  the  policy  of  Austria  see  Krones,  Arneth,  Beer,  A  Wolf,  Forster,  Vehse  and 
Bidermann,  cited  under  I^ecture  34,  Hq/ler,  Der  Congress  von  Soissons  ( Pontes  re- 
rum  Austriacarum,  xxxii.,  xxxviii)  ;  for  the  policy  of  France  sqq.  Lacretelle,  His- 
toire  du  XVIII  ieme  siecle;  yb^^^,  Iva  France  sous  Louis  XV.;  Tocqueville,  Histoire 
philosophique  du  regne  de  Louis  XV.;  Bonhomme,  Louis  XV.  et  sa  famille  ;  Des 
Reaulx,  Le  roi  Stanislas  et  la  reine  Marie  Leczinska;  Boye,  Stanislas  Leczinski 
et  le  troisieme  traite  de  Vienne  ;  Vandal,  Une  ambassade  fran9aise  en  Orient  sous 
Louis  XV.  ;  la  mission  du  Marquis  deVilleneuve  (1720-41),  and  Le  Pacha  Bonne val, 
and  D^ Haussonviile,  Histoire  de  la  reunion  de  la  Lorraine  a  la  France.  Among 
primary  authorities  on  French  history  should  be  noted  the  Memoires  oi Du- 
clos,   Barbier,  D^  Argenson,  Maihieu  Marais  and  Luynes. 


LECTURE  36. 


FREDERICK  WILLIAM  I.  OF  PRUSSIA,  AND  THE  TSARITSA  ANNE  OP 

RUc^blA. 

The  character  of  Frederick  William  I.  (b.  15  August,  1688J,  King 
of  Prussia  (17 13-1740). 

The  foreign  policy  of  Frederick  William  I.  :  in  spite  of  his  love  for 
military  organization,  he  avoided  war  as  much  as  possible  ;  his  only 
important  territorial  conquest  was  the  district  of  Pomerania  between 
the  Oder  and  the  Peene,  which  gave  him  the  port  of  Stettin  on  the  Baltic 
(21  Jan.,  1720)  ;  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Northern  War,  Frederick 
William  I.  supported  the  doctrine  of  the  Balance  of  Power  in  Europe  ; 
his  relations  with  England ;  married  to  Sophia  Dorothea,  daughter  of 
George  I.    ""^  ri  Vi>~Nr'^'"'^^^^*J^>>>^*»^^'    Iv 

One  keynote  of  Frederick  William's  policy  was  his  desire  to  inherit 
the  duchies  of  Juliers  and  Berg,  which  it  had  been  arranged  should  fall 
to  Brandenburg  on  the  extinction  of  the  House  of  Neuburg,  then  ruling 


Frederick  Williajii  I.  of  Prussia.  97 

"in  the  Palatinate  ;  on  the  promise  of  the  Emperor  to  secure  Juliers  and 
Berg  to  him,  Frederick  William  I.  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
deserted  ihe  League  of  Hanover  and  signed  the  Treaty  of  Wuster- 
hausen  (12  Oct.,  1726);  his  schemes  for  obtaining  Royal  Prussia  and 
negotiations  with  Augustus  I.  of  Poland  ;  Frederick  William  I.'s  atti-  . 
tude  towards  Austria  and  towards  the  Empire  ;  he  disapproved  of  the 
election  of  Augustus  II.  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  but  nevertheless  sup- 
ported Charles  VI.  in  the  War  of  the  Polish  Succession. 

The  internal  policy  of  Frederick  William  I. :  his  creation  of  the  ad- 
ministrative system  ;  he  deprived  the  nobility  of  all  share  in  civil  ad- 
ministration, which  he  entrusted  to  a  middle-class  bureaucracy;  his 
centralized  system  and  paternal  government ;  his  improvement  of  the 
finances  and  economic  administration ;  his  attitude  towards  religion ; 
he  welcomed  the  Lutheran  exiles  from  Salzburg  and  gave  them  lands 
to  cultivate  (1731-33). 

The  military  policy  of  Frederick  William  I.:  he  introduced  strict 
discipline  and  a  new  system  of  drill ;  his  passion  for  tall  soldiers  ;  the 
excellence  of  his  army  ;  he  filled  the  ranks  of  all  grades  of  ofl&cers  from 
the  nobles  ;  he  recruited  the  army  partly  by  compulsory  service,  partly 
by  voluntary  enlistment ;  he  increased  the  Prussian  army  from  38,000 
to  84,000  men  \  the  work  of  Leopold  of  Anhalt- Dessau  (b.  1676,  d. 

1747)- 

Frederick  William  I.  and  his  family :  his  quarrels  with  the  Crown 
Prince,  afterwards  known  as  Frederick  the  Great. 

Death  of  Frederick  William  I.  (31  May,  1740). 

Accession  of  Frederick  II.  (b.  24  Jan.,  171 2):  his  character  and  early 
training  ;  his  life  at  Rheinsberg. 

Russia  under  the  Tsaritsa  Anne  (1730-40)  :  circumstances  under 
which  Anne  obtained  the  throne  ;  she  drove  from  power  the  oligarch- 
ical party  led  by  Ivan  £)olgoruki,  which  had  placed  her  on  the  throne, 
and  was  proclaimed  Autocrat  (21  March,  1730);  governed  by  her  lover, 
Biren  (b.  1690,  d.  1772),  who  became  Duke  of  Courland  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  House  of  Kettler  (1737);  she  carried  out  the  policy  of  Peter 
the  Great  in  home  administration  and  maintained  Western  ideas  ;  in  the 
administration  of  Russia,  she  employed  German  generals  and  ministers; 
Ostermann  (b.  1686,  d.  1747);  Miinnich  (b.  1683,  d.  1767);  discontent 
of  the  Old  Russian  party  at  the  internal  policy  of  Anne. 


98  The   Tsaritsa  Anne. 

The  foreign  policy  of  the  Tsaritsa  Anne  :  she  maintained  the  alli- 
ance with  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  entered  into  by  Catherine  I.,  and 
guaranteed  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  ;  she  carried  out  the  ideas  of  Peter 
the  Great  with  regard  to  the  Poles  and  the  Turks  ;  in  the  War  of  the 
Polish  Succession  she  placed  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  upon  the  throne 
of  Poland;  in  the  war  with  the  Turks  (i 736-1 739)  a  Russian  army 
under  Miinnich  and  Peter  Lacy  (b.  1678,  d.  1751)  conquered  the  Crimea 
and  took  Azov  (i  July,  1736);  by  the  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Turks 
(18  Sept.,  1739),  Russia  abandoned  the  Crimea  and  obtained  Azov,  but 
promised  to  maintain  no  fleet  on  the  Black  Sea. 

Death  of  the  Tsaritsa  Anne  (28  October,  1740). 

Accession  of  Ivan  VI.  (b.  23  Aug.,  1740),  grand-nephew  of  Anne,  under 
the  regency  of  Biren  ;  by  a  coup  d'  etat  (20  Nov.,  1740)  Biren  was  over- 
thrown and  the  mother  of  the  infant  king,  Anne  of  Mecklenburg, 
Duchess  of  Brunswick- Be vern,  was  made  regent ;  unpopularity  of  the 
new  Regent  on  account  of  her  German  tendencies ;  quarrel  between 
Miinnich  and  the  Tsar's  father  ;  disgrace  of  Miinnich  ;  Elizabeth  (b. 
1709),  younger  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  supported  by  the  Old 
Russian  party  and  some  personal  friends,  overturned  this  government 
and  was  proclaimed  Tsaritsa  (6  Dec,  1741);  imprisonment  of  the  Tsar 
Ivan  VI.  and  his  parents.     (See  Appendix  VI.) 

Authorities :  Of  books  in  English  on  this  period  of  Prussian  history  see 
TuUle,  History  of  Prussia,  and  Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  the  Great.  Among 
general  secondary  histories  consult  Berner,  Gescbichte  des  preussischen 
Staates ;  Stenzel,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Staats;  Droysen,  Geschichte  der 
preussischen  Politik,  vol.  iv.  ;  Ranke,  Zwolf  Biicher  preussischer  Geschichte ; 
Pariset,  L' etat  et  les  eglises  en  Prusse  (1713-1740);  Philippson,  Geschichte 
des  preussischen  Staatswesens ;  Bornhak,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Verwalt- 
ungsrechts  ;  Isaacsohn,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Beamtenthums  ;  Stadelmann^ 
Preussens  Konige  in  ihrer  Thaiigkeit  fur  die  Landeskultur,  vol.  i.,  and  Cavaignac 
lya  Formation  de  la  Prusse  contemporaine.  More  special  studies  of  the  reign  are 
contained  in  Forster,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  I.,  Konig  von  Preussen  ;  Paulig,  Fried- 
rich  Wilhelm  I.;  Beheim-Schwarzbach,  Friedrich  Wilhelms  I.  Kolonisationswerk 
in  Littauen,  vornehmlich  die  Salzhurger  Kolonie;  Schntoller,  Das  politische  Testa- 
ment Friedrich  Wilhelm's,  and  the  numerous  articles  of  Schmoller  in  different 
periodicals,  of  which  a  complete  list  is  given  in  Historische  Zeitschrift,  vol.  Ivii. 
For  the  early  h^istory  of  Frederick  the  Great  see  the  Memoirs  of  the  Margravine 
of  Baireuth  ;  Koser,  Friedrich  der  Grosse  als  Kro-prinz  ;  Lavisse,  I^a  jeunesse  du 


The  Austrian  Succession.  99 

grand  Fr^ddric,  and  Le  grand  Frdddric  avant  Tavdnement,  and  Hamilton,  Rheins- 
berg,  Memorials  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia.  For  the 
Tsaritsa  Anne  reference  may  be  made  to  Morfill  Story  of  Russia  ;  Rambaiid^ 
Histoire  de  la  Russie ;  Baitty  The  Pupils  of  Peter  the  Great,  a  history  of  the  Rus- 
sian Court  and  Empire  from  1697  to  1740;  Manstein,  Contemporary  Memoirs  of 
Russia  (1727-44)  ;  Halem,  Lebensbeschreibung  des  russischen  general- feldmar- 
schalls  MUnnich  ;  Miinnich,  Memoiren,  ed.  Jiirgefisohn  ;  Jafisen,  Graf  zu  Lynar, 
and  the  despatches  of  foreign  ministers  in  the  Sbornik. 


LECTURE    37, 


THE  WAR  OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSIOM. 

Important  changes  caused  in  Europe  in  1740  by  the  deaths  of  Fred- 
erick William  I.  of  Prussia  (31  May),  of  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  (20 
October),  and  of  the  Tsaritsa  Anne  of  Russia  (28  October). 

The  two  questions  with  regard  to  the  succession  to  Charles  VI.  :  (i) 
the  succession  to  the  Hapsburg  dominions  ;  (2)  the  succession  to  the 
Empire. 

The  claimants  to  the  Hapsburg  succession  :  (i)  the  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia ;  (2)  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland  ;  (3)  the  King  of 
Spain;  (see  Appendix  VII.);  nevertheless  Maria  Theresa  (b.  1717),  elder 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  whose  peaceful  accession  had  been  guaranteed 
by  the  powers  of  Europe  under  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  ascended  the 
throne  and  declared  her  husband,  Francis  of  Lorraine,,  who  since  1737 
had  been  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  to  be  joint  ruler  with  her  of  the 
Austrian  dominions  ;  character  of  Maria  Theresa. 

Of  the  guarantors  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  Russia,  England  and 
the  United  Provinces  supported  Mai^  Theresa ;  Saxony,  Spain  and 
Bavaria  were  openly  hostile  ;  Sardinia  and  France  favored  the  opposi- 
tion ;  and  Prussia  took  the  opportunity  to  attack  Austria  by  invading 
Silesia. 

England's  attitude  towards  Maria  Theresa  :  the  opposition  of  France 
and  Spain  to  her  succession  caused  the  English  ministry  to  support  her 


loo  First  Silesian    War, 

claims  ;  war  had  been  declared  between  England  and  Spain  in  October, 
1739;  causes  of  this  war;  Anson's  voyage  (1740-44)  ;  Vernon's  cap- 
ture of  Porto  Bello  C1739)  and  failure  before  Carthagena  (1741)  ;  influ- 
ence of  this  war  in  defining  England's  attitude  towards  Austria  ;  retire- 
ment of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  (17  Feb.,  1742) ;  position  attained  by- 
England  during  Walpole' s  peace  administration  ;  the  aims  of  his  policy. 

The  attitude  of  France  towards  Maria  Theresa  :  Fleury,  like  Wal- 
pole, was  essentially  a  peace  minister,  but  a  war  party  existed  in  Fiance 
as  in  England  ;  the  French  war  party  desired  to  attack  Austria;  the 
schemes  of  Belle- Isle  (b.  1684,  d.  1761);  by  the  Treaty  of  Nymphen- 
burg(i8  May,  1 741)  he  formed  a  league,  against  Maria  Theresa,  of  France, 
Spain  and  Bavaria,  joined  later  by  Saxony,  Sardinia,  and  (5  June, 
1 741)  by  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia. 

The  attitude  of  Russia  towards  Maria  Theresa  :  the  Regent,  Anne 
of  Mecklenburg,  proposed  to  assist  her  and  to  maintain  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction ;  France  induced  Sweden  to  declare  war  against  Russia 
(4  Aug.,  1 741). 

The  First  Silesian  War  (1740-42)  :  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  invaded 
Silesia  (22  Dec,  1740)  ;  his  demands  and  claims  (see  pp.  46,  70)  ;  he 
defeated  the  Austrians  under  Neipperg  at  Mollwitz  (10  April,  1741 );  his 
agreement  with  France  (5  June);  capture  of  Breslau  (10  Aug.)  ;  the 
Convention  of  Klein  Schnellendorf  (9  Oct.). 

Maria  Theresa's  appeals  to  the  Magyar  nobility;  '^  Moriajuur  pro 
rege  nostra,  Maria  Theresa  ' '  ;  enthusiasm  in  Hungary  for  her  cause, 
whether  these  words  were  used  or  not ;  the  three  ceremonies  at  Press- 
burg;  the  coronation  (25  June,  1741),  the  vote  of  troops  (13  Sept)  and 
the  oath  of  regency  (20  Sept.). 

War  of  the  Austrian  Succession: 

Campaign  of  174 1:  the  Bavarians  aided  by  a  French  army  invaded 
Austria  (July)  and  Bohemia  (Oct.)  ;  Convention  of  Klein  Schnellen- 
dorf (9  October)  ;  the  French  took  Prague  (25  November)  ;  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria  crowned  King  of  Bohemia,  (17  Dec.)  ;  the  Russians  under 
Eacy  defeated  the  Swedes  at  Wilmanstrand  (3  Sept.);  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  seized  the  throne  of  Russia  (6  Dec.)  ; 
death  of  Ulrica  Eleanor,  Queen  of  Sweden  (5  Dec.)  ;  Frederick  the 
Great  refused  to  observe  the  terms  of  the  Convention  of  Klein  Schnel- 
lendorf (Nov.),  invaded  Moravia  and  took  Olmiitz  (26  Dec). 


War  of  the  Austrinti  $^4,Cces%tm\  loi 

The  question  of  the  election  of  an  Emperor  to  succeed  Charles  VI. : 
Maria  Theresa  put  forward  her  husband,  Francis  of  Lorraine  ;  the 
French  supported  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  received  the  adhesion  of 
the  Rhenish  Electors,  of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  of  Augustus  II  of 
Saxony  and  Poland  ;  he  was  unanimously  chosen  (24  January,  1742) 
and  crowned  as  the  Emperor  Charles  VII.  (12  Feb.). 

Campaign  of  1742  :  the  effect  of  Maria  Theresa's  appeal  to  the  Mag- 
yars ;  the  Austrians  under  Khevenhiiller  conquered  Bavaria  and  took 
Munich  (12-14  Feb.)  ;  Frederick  the  Great  defeated  the  Austrians  un- 
der Charles  of  Lorraine,  brother-in-law  of  Maria  Theresa,  at  Chotusitz 
(17  May)  ;  the  policy  of  Carteret  (b.  1690,  d.  1763)  ;  through  the  medi- 
ation of  England,  Maria  Theresa  made  peace  with  Frederick  the  Great 
(28  July,  1742),  and,  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  ceded  Silesia  to  Prussia  ; 
the  Elector  Augustus  II.  made  peace  with  Maria  Theresa  at  Dresden 
(7  September)  ;  critical  position  of  the  French  army  in  Prague  ;  escape 
of  part  of  the  French  army  under  Belle- Isle  (16  December),  and  sur- 
render of  the  remainder  (25  Dec);  the  campaign  in  Italy;  the  policy 
of  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  King  of  Sardinia  ;  he  broke  away  from  the 
alliance  of  Nymphenburg  (i  Feb.),  joined  the  Austrians  and  took  Parma 
and  Modena  ;  campaign  in  Finland  ;  the  Swedish  army  surrendered  to 
the  Russians  at  Helsingfors  (4  Sept.). 

Campaign  of  1743  :  death  of  Fleury  (29  January) ;  attitude  towards 
politics  of  Louis  XV. ;  the  failure  of  the  campaign  caused  the  ruin  of 
Belle- Isle;  the  English  ministry  induced  the  United  Provinces  to  support 
Maria  Theresa  (May);  an  English  army  invaded  southern  Germany; 
George  II.  defeated  the  French  under  Noailles  at  Dettingen  (27  June)  ; 
Treaty  of  Worms  (13  September)  between  Maria  Theresa,  England 
and  Sardinia,  by  which  Maria  Theresa  ceded  Piacenza,  Bobbio  and  the 
county  of  Anghiera  with  Vigevano  to  Charles  Emmanuel  III.  ;  England 
promised  him  a  large  subsidy  for  effective  assistance  in  Italy  ;  this  alli- 
ance met  by  the  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  France  and  Spain 
(25  October),  closely  uniting  the  two  Bourbon  kingdoms ;  France  de- 
clared war  against  Charles  Emmanuel  (30  September):  by  the  Treaty 
of  Abo  (23  June),  peace  made  between  Sweden  and  Russia;  southern 
Finland  to  the  Kiiimen  ceded  to  Russia ;  Adolphus  Frederick  of  Hol- 
stein,  Bishop  of  Liibeck,  recognized  as  heir  to  the  Swedish  throne ; 


I02  War  of  lAe  Austrian  Succession. 

Christian  VI.  of  Denmark  made  an  alliance  with  George  II.  of  England 
(December). 

Campaign  of  1744  :  influence  of  Madame  de  Chateauroux  ;  France, 
which  had  hitherto  taken  part  in  the  war  as  ally  of  Bavaria,  declared 
war  against  England  (15  March)  and  Austria  (26  April) ;  Marshal  Saxe 
(b.  1696,  d.  1750)  invaded  the  Catholic  Netherlands  ;  Charles  "ot  J^or- 
raine  invaded  Alsace  ;  illness  ofLLQuis-KV.  ;  Frederick  the  Great  mar- 
ried his  sister  Louisa TThiua  Lo  Adolphus  of  Holstein,  heir  to  the 
Swedish  throne,  and  thus  offended  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  of  Russia ; 
Frederick  the  Great  resolved  again  to  attack  Austria ;  he  formed  the 
Union  of  "P'^^nkfor^  \m\\\\  the  Emperor  Charles  VII.,  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine, and  the  King  of  Sweden  as  Eandgrave  of  Hesse- Cassel  (9  June); 
he  declared  himself  forced  as  an  Elector  to  defend  the  Emperor  (9  Au- 
gust) ;  the  Second  Silesian  war  (1744-45)  :  Frederick  invaded  Bohemia 
and  took  Prague  (2  September) ;  Charles  of  Lorraine,  recalled  from  Al- 
sace, evacuated  Bavaria ;  the  Prussians  forced  to  retire  from  Bohemia  : 
D'Argenson  (b.  1694,  d.  1757)  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  France 
(18  November) ;  in  Italy  the  Austrians,  advancing  on  Naples,  were  de- 
feated by  the  Neapolitans  and  the  Spaniards  under  Gages  at  Velletri  (11 
August), and  a  French  and  Spanish  army  under  Conti  and  Don  Philip 
conquered  Nice  and  defeated  Charles  Emmanuel  III.  at  the  Madonna 
dell  'Olmo  C30  Sept.);  dismissal  of  Carteret,  who  was  succeeded  in  the 
control  of  English  foreign  policy  by  Pelham  (23  Nov.,  1744)  ;  death  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  VII.  (30  Jan.,  1745). 

Campaign  of  1745  :  Maria  Theresa  signed  the  Treaty  of  Fiissen  with 
the  new  Elector  of  Bavaria,  Maximilian  Joseph  (22  April),  by  which 
Bavaria  renounced  all  claims  to  the  Austrian  succession,  guaranteed  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  promised  to  vote  for  the  election  as  Emperor, 
of  Francis  of  Lorraine  ;  Marshal  Saxe  defeated  the  English  at  Fontenoy 
( 1 1  May)  and  took  the  fortresses  of  the  Catholic  Netherlands  ;  the  Jaco- 
bite rising  in  Scotland  headed  by  the  Young  Pretender  distracted  the 
attention  of  the  English  government  ;  Louisburg,  on  Cape  Breton,  cap- 
tured by  the  American  colonists  (28  June)  ;  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony 
and  Poland  declared  himself  on  the  side  of  Maria  Theresa  (18  May) 
and  invaded  Silesia  with  the  Austrians  ;  Frederick  the  Great  defeated 
the  invaders  at  Hohenfriedberg  (4  June)  and  at  Soor  (30  September) ; 


War  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  103 

Francis  of  IrOrraine  elected  Emperor  by  seven  votes  to  two  (13  Septem- 
ber); Frederick  tlie  Great  defeated  the  Saxons  at  Kesselsdorf  ( 1 5  De- 
cember), took  Dresden  and  conquered  Saxony  ;  the  Spaniards  under 
Gages  and  the  French  under  Maillebois  defeated  Charles  Emmanuel, 
King  of  Sardinia,  at  Bassignano  (27  September)  and  took  all  his  for- 
tresses, except  Turin  and  Alessandria  ;  the  Spaniards  took  Parma,  Pia- 
cenza  and  Milan  (16  December)  ;  by  the  Treaties  of  Dresden  (25 
December)  Maria  Theresa  confirmed  the  cession  of  Silesia  and  all 
privileges  granted  to  Frederick  by  the  Emperor  Charles  VII.,  and  Au- 
gustus paid  1,000,000  thalers  in  gold,  while  Frederick  recognized  the 
Emperor  Francis  and  evacuated  Saxony. 

Campaign  of  1746  :  the  Young  Pretender  defeated  at  CuUoden  (16 
April);  the  Austrians  recovered  Milan  (19  March)  and  defeated  the 
French  and  Spaniards  at  Piacenza  (16  June)  ;  offensive  and  defensive 
alliance  signed  between  Maria  Theresa  and  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  of 
P.ussia  (26  July)  ;  death  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain  (9  July)  ;  the  Spaniards 
and  French  withdrew  from  Italy;  the  Austrians  took  Genoa  (6  Sept.)  ; 
in  the  Netherlands  Marshal  Saxe  captured  Brussels  and  Antwerp  and  de- 
feated the  English  and  Austrians  under  Charles  of  Lorraine  at  Raucoux 
(11  October)  ;  resumption  of  the  duchy  of  Guastalla  on  the  death  of 
the  last  duke  (16  August)  by  Maria  Theresa  ;  the  Austrians  under 
Browne  with  the  Sardinians  invaded  Provence  ;  the  Genoese  expelled 
the  Austrians  (5-10  December)  ;  capture  of  Madras  by  I^a  Bourdonnais 
(14  September). 

Campaign  of  1747  :  dismissal  of  D'Argenson  (10  Jan.)  ;  the  Confer- 
ence of  Breda ;  Marshal  Saxe  invaded  the  Protestant  Netherlands ; 
revolution  there  ;  William  IV.  of  Orange-Nassau  declared  Stadtholder 
(3  May)  and  the  stadtholderate  made  hereditary  in  his  family  ;  Marshal 
Saxe  defeated  the  English,  Dutch  and  Austrians  under  Cumberland  at 
Lauffeld  (2  July);  storm  of  Bergen-op-Zoom  (16  Sept.)  by  Lowendal ; 
defense  of  Genoa  by  Boufflers  ;  battle  of  the  Col  d'Assiette  (19  July). 

Campaign  of  1748  :  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  of  Russia  sent  help  to 
Maria  Theresa  ;  England  and  France  determined  upon  peace. 

Preliminaries  of  peace  signed  between  England,  France  and  the 
Dutch  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  ''30  ApriH,  and  accepted  by  Austria  (25 
May),  and  by  Spain  and  Genoa  (28  June). 


I04  War  of  the  Austriaji  Succession. 

Definitive  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  by  England, 
France  and  the  Dutch  (i8  Oct.),  Spain  (20  Oct.),  Austria  (23  Oct.), 
Modena  (25  Oct.),  Genoa  ^28  Oct.)  and  Sardinia  (7  Nov). 

Authorities:  Tlie  best  small  book  in  English  \s,  Bright,  Maria  Theresa,  • 
The  most  recent  and  most  thorough  secondary  books  on  the  diplomatic  history 
of  this  period  are  the  Due  de  Broglie,  Frederic  II.  et  Marie  Th^rese,  1740-42;  Fred- 
^ricll.  et  Ivou's  Xv^.,  1742-44;  Marie  Therese  imperatrice,  1744-46;  Maurice  de 
Saxe  et  D'Argenson,  1746-48;  and  La  paix  d'  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1747-48);  as  a 
primary  authority  see  Matscheg,  Storia  politica  di  Europa,  1740-41,  studiata 
sui  dispacci  dci  Veneti  ambasciatori.  For  the  Austrian  side,  see  Coxe,  History  of 
the  House  of  Austria  ;  Vitlermont,  Marie  Therese  ;  Arneth,  Geschichte  Maria 
Theresias,  vols.  1-3;  Podewils,  Berichte  iiber  der  Wiener  Hofs  (1746-48);  A, 
Wolf.  CBsterreich  unter  Maria  Theresia,  and  Aus  dem  Hofleben  Maria  Theresia 
nach  den  Memoiren  des  Fiirsten  J.  Khevenhiiller,  and  G.  Wolf,  Aus  der  Zeit  der 
Kaiserin  Maria  Theresia  ;  for  the  Emperor  Charles  VII.,  Heigel,  Der  oester- 
reichische  Erbf olgestreit  und  der  Kaiserwahl  Karl's  VII.,  and  Das  Tagebuch  Kaisers 
Karl's  VII ;  for  Vr\xss\.a.,Droysen,  Geschichte  der  preussischen  Politik,  vols.  11  and  12; 
Carlyte,  History  of  Frederick  the  Great;  Tuttte,  History  of  Prussia;  Koser,  Konig 
Priedrich  der  Grosse;  Preuss,  Friedrich  der  Grosse;  Preussische  Staatschriften  aus 
der  Regierungszeit  Friedrichs  II.  vols,  i,  2,  ed.  Koser,  and  Raumer,  Konig  Fried- 
rich  II.  und  seine  Zeit,  with  the  Politische  Correspondenz  Friedrichs  des  Grossen, 
SiU.^  Frederick  the  Great,  Histoire  de  mon  temps  ;  for  Holland,  Beer,  Uber  Holland 
und  der  CEsterreichische  Erbfolgekrieg  (in  the  Sitzungsberichte  des  kaiserlichen 
Akademie  fiir  Wissenschaft,  vol.  Ixvii.)  ;  for  England,  Ballantyne,  Lord  Carteret ; 
and  for  France,  Correspondance  de  Louis  XV.  et  du  marechal  de  Noailles,  ed.  Rous- 
set ;  the  Memoires  of  D' Argenson,  ed.  Rathery;  Chdteaiiroux,  Correspondance  ;  the 
Journal  of  Barbier ;  the  Memoires  of  Valory,  Noailles,  Duclos,  and  the  Due  de 
Luynes  \  Taillandier,  Maurice  de  Saxe;  Karl  Weber,  Moritz,  Graf  von  Sachsen; 
Vitzthum,  Maurice,  comte  de  Saxe  et  Marie  Joseph e  de  Saxe,  dauphine  de  France  ; 
SinHy,  Vie  du  marechal  de  Lowendal;  Ogle,  The  Marquis  D'Argenson,  and  Zevort 
Le  marquis  d'Argenson  et  le  ministere  des  affaires  etrangeres.  For  the  military 
history  of  the  war  in  western  Europe  consult  Pajol,  Les  guerres  sous  Louis  XV., 
vols.  2,  3;  De  Vault,  Les  guerres  des  Alpes  ;  guerre  dela  succession  d'Autriche,  ed. 
Aruers;  Crousse,  La  guerre  de  la  succession  d'Autriche  dans  les  provinces  Belgiques, 
avec  une  biographie  du  Marechal  de  Saxe  ;  Valfons  Souvenirs  ;  Moris,  Opera- 
tions militaires  dans  les  Alpes  pendant  la  guerre  de  succession  d'Autriche;  and  Thiir- 
helm,  Graf  von  Khevenhiiller^  and  Graf  von  Abenberg  und  Traun  ;  and  of  the  first 
Silesian  war,  Gricnhagen,  Geschichte  des  ersten  schlesischen  Krieges ;  and  Die 
Kriege  Friedrichs  des  Grossen,  ed.  the  Prussian  General  Staff,  vols  1-3.  The  text 
of  the  treaties  and  other  diplomatic  documents  are  contained  in  Wenck,  Codex 
juris  gentium  recentissimi  (1735-1772). 


The  Treaty  of  Aix-la-ChapeUe,  105 

LECTURE   38. 


Vhe  treaty  of  aix-la-chapelle,  and  the;  austro-french 

alliance. 

The  first  negotiations  for  peace:  Conference  of  Breda  (i  746-1 747); 
the  Conference  broken  up  by  the  refusal  of  Maria  Theresa  to  negotiate 
with  France  ;  the  dismissal  of  D' Argenson. 

Negotiations  resumed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  :  the  chief  plenipotentiaries 
were  for  England,  Sandwich  ;  for  France,  Saint-Severin  ;  for  Spain, 
Soto- Mayor  ;  for  the  United  Provinces,  Bentinck,  and  for  Austria,  Kau- 
nhz-4  Maria  Theresa  refused  to  surrender  a  principality  in  Italy  for 
5on  Philip  ;  the  negotiations  broken  off ;  after  the  defeat  of  Lauflfeld, 
England  resolved  that  peace  should  be  made ;  on  30  April,  1748,  Eng- 
land, France  and  the  Dutch  signed  preliminaries  of  peace  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  ;  Austria  forced  to  assent,  and  by  the  end  of  1748  the  Peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  was  accepted  by  all  the  powers. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  : 

(i)  Austria :  Francis  I.  acknowledged  as  Emperor  ;  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  again  confirmed  ;  the  Catholic  Netherlands  recovered  ;  Silesia, 
part  of  Lombardy,  Parma  and  Piacenza  lost. 

(2)  France  evacuated  the  Catholic  Netherlands,  which  had  been  con- 
quered by  Marshal  Saxe  ;  acknowledged  the  Protestant  succession  in 
England,  and  undertook  to  expel  the  Pretender. 

(3)  England  received  again  the  commercial  advantages  given  by 
Spain  by  the  Treaties  of  Utrecht  [which  were  modified,  5  Oct.,  1750], 
and  the  status,  quo  ante  bellum  was  restored  in  Asia  and  America  ;  by 
this  clause  England  recovered  Madras,  and  France,  Cape  Breton. 

(4)  Spain  acknowledged  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  and  Don  Philip  re- 
ceived a  principality  in  Italy. 

(5)  The  Dutch  were  confirmed  in  the  right  to  garrison  the  barrier  for- 
tresses (see  p.  67). 

(6)  Don  Philip  of  Spain,  second  son  of  Philip  V.  and  Elizabeth  Far- 
nese,  the  younger  brother  of  Don  Carlos,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  and 
son-in-law  of  Louis  XV.,  received  Parma,  Piacenza  and  Guastalla, 
which  were  to  revert  to  Austria  on  the  failure  of  male  heirs. 


io6  •   Europe^  17^8-17^6, 

(7)  Charles  Emmanuel  III.  recovered  Savoy  and  Nice,  and  was  con- 
firmed in  the  possession  of  the  districts  of  Lombardy  ceded  to  him  by 
the  Treaty  of  Worms,  with  the  exception  of  the  duchy  of  Piacenza; 
this  extended  his  eastern  frontier  to  the  Ticino. 

(8)  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  was  confirmed  in  the  possession 
of  Silesia. 

The  two  states  which  profited  most  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
were  Prussia  and  Sardinia  ;  France  and  Spain  gained  nothing  ;  Austria 
lost  less  than  might  have  been  expected  ;  England  was  saved  from  ex- 
tinction in  India. 

After  the  close  of  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  Maria  Theresa, 
dissatisfied  with  the  sacrifice  of  Silesia,  which  England  had  imposed 
upon  her,  was  ready  to  alter  the  policy  of  Austria  ;  her  one  desire  the 
recovery  of  Silesia. 

Kaunitz  (b.  171 1,  d.  1794)  :  his  character  and  policy  ;  his  suggestion 
of  an  alliance  between  France  and  Austria  ;  sent  to  Versailles  to  accom- 
plish this  end  (1749)- 

Louis  XV.  and  his  foreign  policy  :  contrast  between  his  avowed  policy 
and  his  secret  diplomacy  ;  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Pompadour 
(b.  1 72 1,  d.  1764)  ;  her  dislike  for  Frederick  the  Great  caused  her  to 
favor  the  new  departure: 

The  relations  between  Austria  and  Spain  :  the  character  of  Ferdinand 
VI.  (1746-59)  ;  he  entered  into  close  alliance  with  Maria  Theresa 
(1752)  ;  the  relations  between  England  and  Austria  ;  Maria  Theresa 
attempted  to  revive  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Catholic  Netherlands, 
and  thus  offended  the  maritime  powers  of  England  and  the  United  Pro- 
vinces. 

The  relations  between  Austria  and  Russia  :  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth, 
owing  to  her  dislike  for  Frederick  the  Great,  allied  herself  with  Maria 
Theresa. 

The  two  issues  which  threatened  to  bring  on  a  general  war:  (i)  the 
desire  of  Maria  Theresa  to  recov^er  Silesia;  (2)  the  rivalry  between  Eng- 
land and  France  in  Asia  and  America. 

The  rivalry  between  France  and  England  in  India:  the  French  and 
English  supported  opposing  native  princes  in  the  Deccan  and  the  Kar- 
natik;  the  schemes  of  Dupleix;  first  successes  of  Clive;  the  defence  of 
Arcot  (1751);  the  recall  of  Dupleix  (1754). 


The  Atistro-Frcnch  Alliance.  107 

The  rivalry  between  France  and  England  in  America:  the  defeat  o^ 
Braddock  (9  July,  1755). 

Maria  Theresa  refused  to  assist  England  against  France;  Frederick 
the  Great  and  George  II.,  by  the  Convention  of  Westminster  (16 
January,  1756),  made  an  alliance  and  guaranteed  each  other's  terri- 
tories. 

Outbreak  of  war  between  England  and  France;  Admiral  Boscawen 
seized  two  French  frigates  (1755);  attack  on  Minorca  by  the  Due  de 
Richelieu  (17  April,  1756);  war  formally  declared  by  England  (17  May); 
by  France  (9  June);  surrender  of  Minorca  (28  June). 

Louis  XV.,  disgusted  at  the  alliance  between  Prussia  and  England, 
resolved  to  accept  the  propositions  of  Kaunitz;  Madame  de  Pompadour 
assisted,  and  a  secret  treaty  of  alliance  was  signed  between  Austria  and 
France  (i  May,  1756). 

Maria  Theresa  on  this  basis  combined  a  general  league  against  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  which  was  joined  by  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  of  Russia, 
Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  and  Poland,  and  other  continental  rulers. 

Frederick  the  Great,  hearing  of  these  negotiations,  invaded  Saxony 
(26  Aug.,  1756),  and  thus  commenced  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

The  Emperor  Francis  declared  that  Frederick  had  exposed  himself  to 
penalties  by  thus  attacking  the  Empire,  and  the  Diet  declared  war 
against  Prussia  (January,  1757);  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  made  an 
ofiFensive  alliance  with  Austria  against  Prussia  (2  Feb.,  1757),  and 
prepared  an  army;  Sweden  entered  into  alliance  with  France  and  Aus- 
tria (21  Mar.,  1757),  and  was  promised  eastern  Pomerania ;  Bernis, 
who  had  made  the  secret  treaty  with  Austria,  concluded  the  second 
treaty  of  Versailles  with  Austria  (i  May,  1757),  and  became  Minister  for 
Foreign  Affairs  of  France  (July). 

Importance  of  the  diplomatic  revolution  effected  by  Kaunitz  ;  the 
classic  policy  of  France  from  the  time  of  Richelieu  had  been  based  on 
enmity  against  the  House  of  Hapsburg  ;  causes  of  this  change  of  front ; 
unpopularity  of  the  Austro- French  alliance  in  France;  its  effects  upon 
Europe. 

Authorities :  The  best  secondary  -wotk  on  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  is 
the  Due  de  Broglie,  La  paix  d' Aix-la-Chapelle;  for  the  diplomatic  revolution  see 
the  Due  de  Broglie^  ^'alliance  autrichienne ;  R.  IVaddiugton,  I^ouis  XV.  et  le 


to8  The  Seven   Years'    War, 

renversement  des  alliances  (1754-56),  preliminaires  diplomatiques  de  la  guerre  de 
sept  ans  ;  Von  Arneth,  Geschichte  Maria  Theresias,  vol.  iii.,  and  Bernis,  M^moires 
et  lettres,  ed.  Masson  ;  for  the  struggle  between  the  French  and  English  in  India, 
SQQMalleson,  History  of  the  French  in  India;  and  in  America,  Parkman,  Half  Cen- 
tury of  Conflict  ;  for  the  situation  in  Prussia,  Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  should  be  used  with  care,  and  more  reliance  can  be  placed  on  Tuttle,  History 
of  Prussia,  vol.  iii.;  on  Taysen,  Zur  Beurtheilung  des  siebenjahrigen  Krieges,  and 
on  Ra7ike,  Der  Ursprung  des  siebenjahrigen  Krieges ;  for  Saxony,  see  Vitzthum, 
Die  Geheimnisse  des  sachsischen  Kabinets  Bnde  1745  bis  Knde  1756 ;  and  for 
Russia,  Vandal,  Louis  XV.  et  Elisabeth  de  Russie  ;  for  Austria,  the  works  of  Von 
Arneth,  A.  Wolf  and  G.  Wolf,  cited  under  Lecture  37,  may  'still  be  used  with 
Bentinck,  Aufzeichnungen  iiber  Maria  Theresia,  mit  einer  Einleitung  iiber  die 
CEsterreichische  Politik  in  1749-55,  ed.  Beer;  for  Prussia,  the  works  cited  under 
Lecture  37,  with  Valory,  Memoires ;  and  for  France,  with  Barbier,  D'Argenson, 
De  Luynes,  Duclos,  and  Roussel,  Correspondance  de  Louis  XV.  et  du  marechal  de 
Koailles,  should  be  consulted  Madame  de  Pompadour,  Correspondance,  ed.  Ma- 
lassis;  Campardon,  Madame  de  Pompadour  et  la  cour  de  Louis  XV.;  Goncourt, 
Madame  de  Pompadour;  Broglie,  Le  secret  du  Roi ;  Rousset,  Le  comte  de  Gisors,' 
and  Boutaru,  Correspondence  secrete  inedite  de  Louis  XV. 


I.ECTURK  39, 


THE  SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR. 

The  position  of  the  powers  of  Europe  at  the  outbreak  of  the  {Seven 
Years'  War  :  difference  of  the  aims  of  England  and  Prussia  ;  the  chief 
desire  of  Maria  Theresa  and.  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  was  to  humble 
Frederick  the  Great  and  to  reduce  the  power  of  Prussia  ;  the  policy  of 
France  was  not  so  much  to  defeat  Prussia  as  to  check  the  expansion  of 
England. 

The  United  Provinces,  owing  to  the  death  of  the  Stadtholder,  Wil- 
liam IV.  (1751),  and  the  minority  of  his  son,  pursued  a  peace  policy 
and  declared  neutrality. 

England  desired  to  fight  at  sea  and  in  America  and  India,  but  was 
drawn  into  the  continental  war  by  the  connection  with  Hanover  ;  Pitt 
(b.  1707,  d.  1778)  perceived  the  solidarity  of  the  struggle  upon  the 
Continent  with  the  maritime  and  colonial  war,  and  advocated  vigorous 


TTie  Seven   Years*  War.  109 

support  of  Frederick  the  Great ;  Prussia  had  to  meet  the  assault  of 
Austria,  Russia,  Sweden  and  France  ;  excellence  of  the  Prussian  army; 
Frederick  the  Great  as  a  statesman  and  a  general. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  :  the  campaign  of  1756  ;  Frederick  the  Great 
invaded  Saxony  (26  August)  and  occupied  Dresden  ;  the  Saxon  army 
surrounded  at  Pirna  ;  the  Austrians  under  Browne  marched  to  their 
assistance  ;  the  battle  of  Lobositz  (i  October);  surrender  of  the  whole 
Saxon  army  at  Pirna  (16  October);  anger  of  Louis  XV.  at  the  attack 
on  Saxony  ;  capture  of  Oswego  by  Montcalm  (14  August). 

The  campaign  of  i7S7  :  scheme  of  an  invasion  of  Prussia  by  the* 
Austrians,  French,  Imperialists,  Russians  and  Swedes  ;  Frederick  took 
the  offensive  and  invaded  Bohemia ;  he  defeated  the  Austrians  at 
Prague  (6  May);  Daun  (b.  1705,  d.  1766)  advanced  to  the  relief  of 
Prague  and  defeated  Frederick  at  Kolin  (18  June);  retreat  of  the  Prus- 
sians from  Bohemia  ;  the  French  under  D'Estrees  defeated  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland  at  Hastenbeck  (26  Julyj;  Cumberland  made  the  Conven- 
tion of  Kloster-zeven  (10  September)  ;  the  Russians  under  Apraxin 
defeated  the  Prussians  under  Lehwaldt  at  Gross- Jagerndorf  (30  August) 
and  conquered  Ducal  Prussia  ;  the  Imperialists  with  a  French  army 
under  Soubise  utterly  defeated  by  Frederick  the  Great  at  Rossbach  (5 
November);  the  Russians  retired  and  the  Swedes  were  driven  out  of  ^^^^ 
Pomerania  ;  Frederick  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Leuthen  (5  Decem^^JJ^ 
ber)  and  recovered  the  whole  of  Silesia  ;  Pitt  repudiated  the  Conven-  j\  .^^^j^ 
tion  of  Kloster-zeven,  granted  a  subsidy  to  Frederick  and  placed  an 
English  and  Hanoverian  army  under  the  command  of  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick  (b.  1721,  d.  1792);  failure  of  an  English  expedition  against 
Rochefort  ;  Montcalm's  capture  of  Fort  William  Henry  (9  August). 

Campaign  of  1758:  renewal  of  the  alliances  between  England  and 
Prussia,  and  between  Austria,  France  and  Russia  ;  Choiseul  (b.  1719,  d. 
1785)  became  chief  minister  of  France  and  supported  more  strongly  the 
Austro- French  alliance  ;  Fermor  with  a  Russian  army  took  Konigsberg 
(21  Jan.); Frederick  took  Schweidnitz  (16  April),  and  invaded  Bohemia  ; 
forced  to  retreat  to  meet  a  Russian  invasion;  battle  of  Zorndorf  (25  Au- 
gust) between  Frederick  and  Fermor  ;  Frederick  defeated  by  the  Aus- 
trians under  Daun  at  Hochkirch  (14  October);  the  Austrians  retreated 
into  Bohemia ;  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  drove  the  French  out  of  Han-. 


no  The  Stjen   Years'   Way. 

over  and  Westphalia,  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  defeated  them  at  Crefeld 
(26  June);  Amherst  and  Boscawen  took  Louisburg  (26  July),  but  Aber- 
cromby  was  repulsed  from  Ticonderoga  (8  July);  occupation  by  the 
English  of  Fort  Frontenac  (27  Aug.)  and  of  Fort  Duquesne  (25  Nov.); 
unsuccessful  English  attacks  on  the  French  coast  at  Saint-Malo,  Cher- 
bourg and  Saint-Cast. 

Campaign  of  ij.SQ^  the  Russians  under  Soltikov  defeated  Wedell  at  yy^ 
Kay  (23  July),  took  Frankfort- on- the- Oder,  and  were  joined  by  the  Aus- 1  ^ 
trian  army  under  Loudon  ;  Frederick  utterly  defeated  at  Kunersdorf  by 
the  Russians  and  Austrians  (12  August)  ;  Saxony  occupied  by  the 
Austrians  and  Imperialists  ;  surrender  of  a  Prussian  army  to  Daun  at 
Maxen  (21  November);  desperate  position  of  Frederick  the  Great; 
Ferdinand  pf^  Brunswick  defeated  the  French  under  Contades  at 
/^fiin^en  ( i August)  ;  English  victories  at  sea:  Boscawen  defeated 
one  French  fleet  at  Lagos  (17  August),  and  Hawke  another  off  Qui- 
bergn  (21  November)  ;  capture  of  Guadeloupe  (20  April)  ;  Lally's  fail- 
ure to  take  Madras  ;  the  English  took  Fort  Niagara  (25  July)  and  Fort 
Ticonderoga  (26  July);  Wolfe  defeated  Montcalm,  and  took  Quebec  (18 
September). 

Campaign  of  1760  :  Loudon  (b.  1717,  d.  1790)  defeated  the  Prussians 
at  Landeshut  (23  June)  ;  defeated  by  Frederick  at  Liegnitz  (15  Au- 
gust); the  Russians  and  Austrians  occupied  Berlin;  Frederick  recovered 
his  capital  and  defeated  Daun  at  Torgau  (3  November)  ;  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick  kept  the  French  out  of  Hanover  and  Westphalia,  but  his 
nephew  was  defeated  by  Broglie  at  Kloster-Camp  (16  Oct.);  Eyre 
Coote  defeated  the  French  at  Wandewash  (22  January),  and  overthrew 
the  power  of  France  in  India  ;  Amherst  took  Montreal  (8  September), 
and  completed  the  occupation  of  Canada  ;  death  of  George  II.  of  Eng- 
land (25  October). 

Campaign  of  1761:  exhaustion  of  the  nations  engaged  in  the  war ; 
Loudon  took  Schweidnitz  ;  Frederick  fought  no  pitched  battle  ;  Ferdi- 
nand of  Brunswick  prevented  Broglie  from  advancing  ;  the  Russians 
conquered  Pomerania,  but  failed  to  take  Stettin  ;  the  English  captured 
Belle- Isle  off  the  coast  of  France  (7  June);  capture  of  Pondicherry 
(15  Jan.);  Choiseul  signed  the  Pacte  de  Famille  between  France  and 
Spain  (15  Aug.);  resignation  of  Pitt  (5  Oct.). 


The  Sci'Di    Years'^   War.  Ill 

Campaipfn  of  1762:  Spain  declared  war  against  England  (16  Jan- 
uary;; the  English  took  Martinique  (13  Feb.);  Grenada  (4  March); 
Saint  Vincent  (Mar.  j;  Havana  (14  Aug.),  and  Manilla  (6  Oct.);  Bute  be- 
came Prime  Minister  of  England  (26  May);  he  refused  to  continue  pay- 
ing subsidies  to  Frederick  ;  death  of  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  of  Russia  (5 
Jan.);  her  successor,  Peter  III.,  made  an  offensive  and  defensive  al- 
liance with  Frederick  (5  May);  revolution  at  St.  Petersburg  (9  July); 
Peter  III.  overthrown  by  his  wife,  Catherine  ;^,3he~^eclared  neu- 
trality; Frederick  took  Schweidnitz  (9  Octob^);  the  Prussians  invaded 
South  Germany ;  the  Diet  of  the  Empire  declared  neutrality;  negotia- 
tions for  peace  ;  a  truce  signed  between  Austria  and  Prussia. 

The  Seven  Years'  War  concluded  by  the  Treaties  of  Hubertsburg 
and  Paris. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Hubertsburg  (15  February,  1763),  the  status  quo  ante 
bellmn  restored  between  Austria  and  Prussia  ;  Silesia  again  guaranteed 
to  Prussia  ;  Frederick  promised  to  vote  for  Joseph  as  King  of  the 
Romans  and  to  evacuate  Saxony. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (10  February,  1763),  France  ceded  Canada, 
Cape  Breton,  Senegal,  Tobago,  Dominica,  Saint  Vincent,  Grenada  and 
the  Grenadines,  and  restored  Minorca,  to  England ;  Spain  ceded 
Florida  to  England,  in  return  for  which  France  ceded  Louisiana  to 
Spain  ;  the  English  restored  Belle-Isle,  Guadeloupe,  Martinique  and 
the  settlements  in  India  to  France,  and  Havana  ^.d  Manilla  to  Spain. 

General  results  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  ;  policy  of  Frederick  the 
Great  and  its  results  ;  the  policy  of  Pitt  and  its  results. 

Authorities :  An  excellent  short  book  in  English  is  Longman,  Frederick  the 
Great  and  the  Seven  Years'  War  ;  the  volumes  devoted  to  this  period  hy  Carlyle^ 
in  his  History  of  Frederick  the  Great,  are  the  most  valuable  in  his  book.  For  the 
military  history  of  the  war,  see  Geschichte  des  siebenjahrigen  Krieges,  ed.  the 
Prussian  General  Staff;  Frederick  the  Greats  Histoire  de  la  guerre  de  Sept  Ans; 
Lloyd,  History  of  the  late  War  in  Germany ;  Joniini^  Grand  Military  Opera- 
tions ;  Tielcke,  Beytrage  zur  Kriegskunst  und  Geschichte  des  Krieges  von  1756 
bis  1763;  ArchenhoHz,  Geschichte  des  siebenjahrigen  Krieges  in  Deutschland ; 
Schoning,  DersiebenjahrigeKrieg;  Schdfer,  Geschichte  des  siebenjahrigen  Krieges; 
Ranihaud,  Russes  et  Prussiens,  guerre  de  Sept  Ans ;  Hasenkamp,  Ost-Preussen 
unter  dem  Doppelaar,  historische  Skizze  der  russischen  Invasion  in  der  Tagen  des 
siebenjahrigen  Krieges;  Imrnich,  Die  Schlacht  bei  Zorndorf;  Malleson,  London? 


JU^ 


^ 


112  France  under  Louis  XV. 

Bernhardt^  Pri'ediricli  der  Grosse  als  Feldherr ;  Westphalen^  Geschichte  der  Feld- 
ziige  des  Herzogs  Ferdinands  von  Braunschweig-Iyuneburg  ;  Renouard,  Geschichte: 
des  Krieges  in  Hannover,  Hessen  und  Westphalen  ;  Valfons^  Souvenirs  \Roussety 
Le  comte  de  Gisors  ;  Blention,  I^e  comte  de  Saint-Germain,  and  Pajol,  Les  guerres 
sous  lyouis  XV.,  vols,  iv.,  v.  For  the  diplomatic  history  of  the  war  see  the  works, 
cited  under  Lecture  38  with  Due  de  Broglie,  Voltaire  avant  et  pendant  la  guerre  de 
Sept  Ans  ;  Filon,  L'ambassade  de  Choiseul  a  Vienne  en  1757-58 ;  Bisset,  Memoirs 
and  Papers  of  Sir  A.  Mitchell ;  Bonhomme,  Madame  de  Pompadour  general 
d'armee  ;  Ruville,  Die  Auflosung  des  preussisch-englischen  Bundnisses  im  Jahre 
1762,  and  Beaulieu-Marconnay,  Der  Hubertsburger  Friede.  For  the  policy  of  Pitt, 
see  Stanhope,  History  of  England  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  vols,  v.-vii.  For  the 
struggle  in  India,  Malleson,  History  of  the  French  in  India,  and  in  America  Park* 
man,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe. 


^ECTURE    40. 


FRANCE  UNDER  LOUIS  XV. 


The  internal  government  of  France  during  the  18th  centttry  r  the  ad- 
ministrative machinery  created  in  the  17th  century  retained  without 
modification  ;  the  central  government ;  the  work  of  the  intendants  in 
the  provinces  ;  growth  of  the  importance  of  the  police  ;  condition  of 
Paris  ;  introduction  of  lighting  and  fire- protection  by  Sartine. 

The  Court  of  Louis  XV.  and  its  influence  on  internal  politics  after  the 
death  of  Fleury  ;  its  influence  on  foreign  politics  ;  the  power  of  the 
king's  mistresses;  Madame  de  Chateauroux  (1740-44);  Madame  de 
Pompadour  (1745-64)  ;  the  attempt  of  Damiens  to  murder  the  king^ 
(5  Jan.,  1757)  ;  the  Queen,  Marie  Leczinska  (d.  1768);  the  Dauphin  (b. 
1729,  d.  1765)  ;  his  wives,  Marie  Therese  of  Spain  and  Marie  Josephe  of 
Saxony  ;  his  three  sons  ;  the  king's  daughters  ;  their  circle  and  influ- 
ence ;  typical  courtiers  ;   Richelieu,  Maurepas,  Nivernais. 

The  ministers  of  Louis  XV.  :  their  dependence  on  the  Court  and  the 
mistresses  ;  growth  of  ministerial  families  ;  constant  changes  of  minis- 
ters ;  court  intrigues  ;  the  most  notable  ministers  from  the  death  of 
Fleury  to  the  dismissal  of  Choiseul ;   D'Aguesseau  (1757-50),  and  La- 


France  under  Louis  XV.  1 13 

moignon  (1750-68),  Chancellors ;  Amelot  (1737-44),  Rend  Louis, 
marquis  d'Argenson  (1744-47),  Rouille  (1754-57),  Bernis  (1757-58), 
Choiseul  (1758-61  and  1766-70),  and  Choiseul-Praslin  (1761-66),  For- 
eign Affairs  ;  Machault  (1745-54),  Finances  ;  Marc  Pierre,  comte  d'Ar- 
genson (1742-57J,  Belle-Isle  (1758-61),  and  Choiseul  (1761-70),  War ; 
Maurepas  (1723-49),  Rouille  (1749-54),  Machault  (1754-57),  Berryer 
(1758-61),  Choiseul  (1761-66),  and  Choiseul-Praslin  (1766-70),  Ma- 
rine; Lieutenants-General  of  Police,  Herault  (1725-40),  Berryer  (1747- 
57)  and  Sartine  U 759-74)- 

The  private  foreign  policy  of  the  king,  the  "secret  du  Roi  ";  its  con- 
flict with  the  diplomacy  of  his  ministers  ;   the  comte  de  Broglie. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Choiseul :  its  chief  features,  the  Pacte  de 
Famille  (1761)  and  the  marriage  of  Marie  Antoinette  to  the  heir  of 
France  (16  May,  1770)  ;  popularity  of  the  Spanish  and  unpopularity  of 
the  Austrian  alliance  in  France  ;  Favier  ;  annexation  of  Lorraine  on 
the  death  of  Stanislas  Leczinski  (1766)  ;  purchase  of  Corsica  from  the 
Genoese  (1768)  and  its  conquest  (1769)  ;  his  policy  in  Poland  and  at 
Constantinople  ;  the  dismissal  of  Choiseul  (24  Dec,  1770). 

The  weak  points  in  the  internal  administration:  confusion  and  mis- 
management of  the  finances  after  the  administrations  of  Orry  and 
Machault;  condition  of  the  provinces;  steady  improvement  in  manu- 
factures; prosperity  of  commerce  with  the  West  Indies;  Bordeaux; 
success  of  the  planters  in  San  Domingo,  the  French  Antilles  and  the 
Mauritius;  abandonment  of  rivalry  with  the  English  in  India;  suspen- 
sion of  the  French  East  India  Company  (1769);  decline  in  the  pros- 
perity of  agriculture  ;  state  control  of  the  internal  grain  trade  ;  the 
Pacte  de  Famine. 

The  part  played  by  the  Parlements  and  especially  by  the  Parlement 
of  Paris  down  to  the  time  of  the  dismissal  of  Choiseul;  exile  of  the  Par- 
lement (1753-54);  the  reforms  of  13  Dec,  1756;  the  strength  and  weak- 
ness of  the  Parlements;  their  attempt  to  interfere  in  internal  politics; 
their  Jansenist  proclivities  cause  them  to  support  Choiseul  against  the 
Jc  .;its. 

Affairs  in  Brittany:  quarrels  of  the  governor,  D'Aiguillon,  with  the 
Estates  of  Brittany  and  the  Parlement  of  Rennes;  La  Chalotais;  resig- 
nation of  the  Parlement  and  arrest  of  La  Chalotais  (1765);  triumph  of 
the  Estates  and  Parlement,  and  resignation  of  D'Aiguillon  (i769\ 


114  France  under  Louis  XV. 

The  last  mistress  of  Louis  XV.:  the  career  and  character  of  Madame 
du  Barry  (b.  1746,  d.  1793),  and  her  influence;  her  presentation  at 
Court  (1769);  the  dismissal  of  Choiseul;  France  governed  by  D'Aig- 
uillon,  Terrai  and  Maupeou  ;  the  work  of  these  ministers;  D'Aig- 
uillon,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  (1771-74)  ;  his  foreign  policy; 
position  of  France  during  the  partition  of  Poland ;  its  influence 
in  the  Russo-Turkish  war ;  the  financial  policy  of  Terrai,  Controller- 
General  of  the  Finances  (1769-74);  he  declared  partial  bankruptcy; 
Maupeou,  Chancellor  of  France  (1768),  and  the  Parlements ;  he  exiled 
the  former  judges  and  created  the  Parlements  Maupeou  (1771). 

Degradation  of  the  Court  of  France  in  the  last  days  of  Louis  XV.; 
his  conduct  destroyed  the  prestige  of  the  French  monarchy. 

Condition  of  France  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. :  its  advance  in 
material  wealth;  general  improvement  in  education,  the  work  of  the 
Oratorians. 

Rise  of  the  French  school  of  political  economists  known  as  the 
Physiocrats;  their  works  drew  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  agri- 
cultural interest ;  Quesnay  ;  attempts  made  to  improve  agriculture ; 
effect  of  the  physiocratic  theories  on  commerce;  Vincent  de  Gournay; 
the  works  of  the  Marquis  de  Mirabeau.^^ui^'  <^  4AJcnM\AMp)  t^ 

Intellectual  condition  of  France  under  Louis  XV. :  effect  of  the  works 
of  ''  the  philosophes  " ;  Voltaire  and  his  influence ;  Diderot ;  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Encyclopidie  Methodique ;  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau ;  his 
influence  on  political  and  social  ideas,  and  upon  education;  the  Contrat 
Social,  the  Profession  de  foi  d'un  Vicaire  Savoyard,  the  Nouvelle  Heloise 
and  Emile.  (^-^^ 

Position  of  affairs  at  the  death  of  Louis  XV.  (10  May,  1774);  weak- 
ness of  the  administrative  machine  :  prosperity  and  intelligence  of  the 
middle  classes  ;  political  insignificance  of  the  nobility;  condition  of  the 
Church ;  evil  effect  of  privilege  ;  general  expectation  of  a  new  or^er  of 
things  inspired  by  the  intellectual  movement. 

Authorities:  Among  secondary  AistonVs may  be  noted  Voltaire,  SSkoX^  ^^ 
Louis  XV. ;  Lacretelle,  Histoire  de  France  pendant  le  XVIIIieme  siecle,  6  vols.,  and 
La  France  sous  Louis  XV.,  6  vols.,  and  Tocqueville,  Histoire  philosophique  du 
r^gne  de  Louis  XV.  The  memoirs  dealing  with  the  period  are  described  in 
Aubertin,  L'esprit  public  au  XVIIIieme  siecle  ;  among  them  may  be  particularly 


The  Suppression  of  the  Jesuits »  115 

noticed  .those  of  the  Due  de  Luyfies,  Ptisident  Henauli,  D'Argenson^  ed. 
Rathery^  Barbier,  Madame  du  Hausset,  Pierre  Narbofine,  Dufort  de  Cheveniy,  At- 
lonville,  and  Bachaumoni  (those  of  the  Due  de  Richelieu  and  the  Souvenirs  of 
Madame  de  Crequi  are  compilations)  and  Tilly,  Souvenirs.  Upon  the  finances, 
Stounn^  Les  Finances  de  I'aucien  regime  et  de  la  Revolution,  and  Marion,  Machault 
d'Arnouville,  ^tude  sur  I'histoire  du  contr61e  g^n^rale  des  finances  de  1749  d  1754, 
may  be  consulted ;  on  the  Physiocrats,  Higgs,  The  Physiocrats  ;  Lavergne^  Les 
economistes  frangais  au  XVIIIieme  si^cle  ;  Schelle,  Vincent  de  Goumay,  and  Du- 
pont  de  Nemours  et  I'^cole  physiocratique  ;  Galianiy  Correspondance,  ed.  Perey 
and  Maugras  ;  Turgot,  CEuvres  ;  and  the  writings  of  the  Physiocrats,  ed.  Duponide 
Nemours,  10  vols.,  or  ed.  Daire,  15  vols.;  on  the  Pacte  de  Famine,  Biollay,  Le 
pacte  de  famine,  and  A/anassiev,  Le  commerce  des  c^r^ales  en  France  au  X  VIII* 
si^cle  ;  on  the  secret  diplomacy,  Broglie,  Le  secret  du  Roi;  Boutaric,  Correspondance 
secrete  de  Louis  XV. ;  Gaillardet,  M^moires  sur  la  chevali^re  d'Eon,  and  Telfer, 
The  Strange  Career  of  the  Chevalier  d'Eon  de  Beaumont;  on  the  policy  of  Choiseul, 
Soulange-Bodin,  La  diplomatic  de  Louis  XV.  et  le  Pacte  de  Famille,  and  Daubigny, 
Choiseul  et  la  France  d'Outre-mer  apres  le  traitd  de  Paris  ;  on  local  administration, 
Legrandy  Senac  de  Meilhan  et  I'iutendance  du  Hainaut ;  Dumas,  La  g^neralitd  de 
Tours  au  XVIII*  sidcle  ;  Garni,  Les  Eiats  de  Bretagne  ;  Garre,  La  Chalotais  et  le 
due  d'Aiguillon ;  Marion,  La  Bretagne  et  le  due  d'  Aiguillon  (1753-1770); 
Mathieu,  L'ancien  regime  dans  la  province  de  Lorraine,  and  D' Haussonville,  His- 
toire  de  la  reunion  de  la  Lorraine  a  la  France,  vol.  iv.;  on  the  latter  years  of  Louis 
XV.,  Vatel^  Histoire  de  Madame  Du  Barry,  and  Flamynertjwnt,  Le  chancelier 
Maupeou  et  les  Parlements ;  and  on  the  king's  court  and  his  personality,  Bon^ 
hommey  Louis  XV.  et  sa  famille ;  D'Armaille,  La  reine  Marie  Leczinska ; 
Emm.  de  Broglie,  Le  fils  de  Louis  XV.,  Louis,  Dauphin  de  France,  (1729-1765); 
Barthelemy,  Mesdames  de  France  ;  Correspondance  secrete  entre  IMarie  Th^rese  et 
le  comte  de  Mercy- Argenteau,  ed.  Ameth  and  Geffroy ;  Grelineaujoly,  Histoire 
des  trois  derniers  princes  de  la  maison  de  Conde,  and  Maugras ,  Le  due  de  Lauzun 
et  la  cour  intime  de  Louis  XV. 


LECTURE  41. 


THE  SUPPRESSION  OF  THE  JESUITS. 

The  condition  of  the  southern  countries  of  Europe  in  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century  :  their  internal  development  under  reforming  kings 
or  great  ministers  ;  influence  exerted  by  the  philosophic  doctrines  of  the 


Ii6  The  Suppression  of  the  Jesuits, 

time  towards  religious  toleration  and  general  reform  ;  altered  attitude 
towards  the  Pope  and  the  Church. 

The  Popes  of  the  i8th  century  :  Clement  XI. — Albani — 1700-1721  ; 
disputes  with  Victor  Amadeus,  King  of  Sicily  ;  Innocent  XIII. — Conti 
— 1721-24;  Benedict  XIII. — Orsini — 1724-30;  he  confirmed  the  con- 
demnation of  the  Jansenists,  and  maintained  the  bull  "  Unigenitus"  as 
an  article  of  faith  ;  his  personal  piety  and  amiability  ;  rapacity  and 
misgovernment  of  Cardinal  Coscia  ;  Clement  XII. — Corsini — 1730-40  ; 
punishment  of  Coscia  ;  Benedict  XIV. — Lambertini — 1740-58  ;  his 
skill  as  a  statesman  ;  his  philosophicaTtendencies  and  moderation  ;  his 
correspondence  with  Voltaire  ;  his  buildings  at  Rome  ;  he  died  before 
the  opposition  to  the  Jesuits  reached  its  height ;  Clement  XIII. — Rez- 
zonico — 1758-69  ;  his  refusal  to  consent  to  the  suppression  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus. 

The  general  discontent  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  caused  by  the 
commercial  operations  of  the  Jesuits ;  the  Society  ceased  to  be  self- 
sacrificing  and  devoted  to  the  Papacy  ;  faults  and  virtues  of  the  Jesuits 
in  the  i8th  century. 

The  first  attack  on  the  Jesuits  was  directed  by  Pombal,  who  had  be- 
come chief  minister  of  Portugal  under  King  Joseph ;  causes  of  Pom- 
bal's  hatred  of  the  Jesuits  ;  they  opposed  his  measures  of  reform  ;  they 
monopolized  what  remained  of  Portuguese  commerce  with  India,  and 
they  fought  against  the  cession  of  Paraguay  to  Portugal ;  Pombal  for- 
bade the  Jesuits  to  come  to  court  without  leave  (1757)  ;  the  Tavora 
plot  (1758)  ;  Pombal  deported  the  Jesuits  to  Italy  (1759),  and  confis- 
cated all  their  property  in  Portugal ;  Pope  Clement  XIII.  defended  the 
Jesuits  ;  execution  of  Malagrida  (1761). 

The  example  of  Pombal  followed  in  other  countries  :  (i)  in  France  : 
discredit  caused  by  the  failure  of  Jesuit  traders;  Choiseul  was  supported 
by  the  Parlements,  who  remembered  the  persecution  of  the  Jansenists ; 
the  Parlement  of  Paris  condemned  the  constitutions  of  the  Society 
(1761)  ;  abolition  of  the  Society  in  France  by  a  royal  edict  (1764)  ;  (2) 
in  Spain  :  Charles  III.  banished  the  Jesuits  from  his  kingdom  (1767); 
(3)  in  Italy:  the  Jesuits  expelled  from  Naples  (1767)  and  Parma  (1768). 

Pope  Clement  XIII.  defended  the  Society  of  Jesus ;  he  attacked  the 
weakest  of  their  opponents,  excommunicated  the  Duke  of  Parma,  and 


The  Suppression  of  the  Jesuits.  1 17 

declared  the  duchy  confiscated  (1768)  ;  the  Catholic  powers  supported 
Parma ;  the  French  occupied  Avignon,  and  the  Neapolitans  Bene- 
vento  and  Ponte  Corvo  ;  Spain,  the  Two  Sicilies,  France  and  Portugal 
demanded  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (Jan.,  1769)  ;  death 
of  Pope  Clement  XIII.  (3  Feb.,  1769). 

Election  of  Pope  Clement  XIV. — Ganganelli — (19  May,  1769)  ;  his 
character  and  previous  career  ;  pressed  by  Cardinal  Bernis  on  the  part 
of  France  to  suppress  the  Society  of  Jesus  ;  difficulties  of  his  position  ; 
reconciled  to  Parma  and  Portugal ;  the  evacuation  of  Avignon  and 
Benevento  ;  eventually  he  issued  a  brief  suppressing  the  Society  of 
Jesus  (27  July,  1773). 

Effect  upon  Europe  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Jesuits  ;  their  suppression 
typical  of  the  changed  attitude  of  the  Catholic  powers  towards  the  Pope 
and  of  the  people  towards  the  Catholic  religion. 

Attempts  made  to  replace  the  Jesuits  as  a  teaching  organization  ;  the 
Oratorians  ;  Catherine  II.  protected  and  encouraged  the  Jesuits  in  the 
part  of  Poland  which  fell  to  her  at  the  first  partition  ;  the  Society  con- 
tinued to  exist  in  Russia  and  Prussia. 

Death  of  Clement  XIV.  (22  Sept.,  1774)  ;  election  of  Pius  VI.^ 
Braschi  (14  Feb.,  1775). 

Internal  administration  of  the  States  of  the  Church  under  the  Popes 
of  the  1 8th  century ;  condition  of  the  Legations ;  Rome  became  the 
chief  place  of  resort  for  wealthy  travellers  ;  effect  upon  Protestant  coun- 
tries of  the  increased  tolerance  of  the  Papacy. 

Improved  personal  character  of  the  Popes  in  the  i8th  century:   d^-jj^ 
crease  of  personal  and  family  ambition  ;  disappearance  oi^no^^o^smJt^^^'fi 

Significance  of  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  as  a  typical  act  "v 
of  the  1 8th  century. 

Authorities :  For  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  see  Crttineau-Joly,  Histoire 
religieuse,  politique  et  litt^raire  de  la  compagnie  de  J^sus,  vols  v.,  vi.,  and  Le  Pape 
Clement  XIV.;  Senac  de  Meilhan,  Histoire  abreg^e  de  I'expulsion  des  J^suites; 
Saint-Priest,  Histoire  de  la  chute  des  J^suites ;  Masson,  Le  cardinal  de  Bernis 
depuis  son  ministdre  (1758-94);  Theincr,  Histoire  du  pontificat  de  Clement  XIV.; 
Von  i?^ttWd?n/, Ganganelli,  Papst  Clemens  XIV.,  seine  Briefe  und  seine  Zeit;  Artaud^ 
Histoire  de  Pie  VI.,  and  Crousaz-Critet,  L'EgUse  et  I'fetat  (1715-89). 


Ii8  The  Tsar  it sa  Elizabeth. 

LECTURE  42. 


THE  FIRST  PARTITION  OF  POLAND. 

The  internal  history  of  Russia  from  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great : 
formation  of  two  opposing  parties,  of  which  one  desired  to  continue  the 
progress  in  Western  civilization  commenced  by  Peter,  and  the  other  de- 
sired to  recur  to  the  old  Russian  customs  and  system  of  government;  the 
Church,  the  nobles  and  the  mass  of  the  population  favored  throughout 
the  century  a  reaction  against  Peter's  innovations  ;  it  was  due  to  the 
personal  character  of  successive  rulers  that  Russia  was  further  developed 
on  Western  lines. 

Both  the  Tsaritsa  Anne  (1730),  and  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  (1741), 
were  raised  to  the  throne  of  Russia  because  they  were  believed  to  be  in 
sympathy  with  old  Russian  id^s,  and  it  was  expected  that  they  would 
leave  the  control  of  affairs  to  the  Russian  nobles,  but  both  Tsaritsas, 
when  firmly  established,  carried  on  the  system  of  Peter  the  Great  in  in- 
ternal government. 

Although  the  Russians  disliked  the  Western  system  and  the  employ- 
ment of  foreigners  introduced  by  Peter  the  Great,  they  enthusiastically 
believed  in  his  foreign  policy  and  in  the  ideas  he  had  formed  for  the 
expansion  of  Russia  ;  the  foreign  policy  of  the  government  was  popular 
or  unpopular  in  so  far  as  it  adhered  to  or  departed  from  the  lines  laid 
down  by  Peter  the  Great. 

The  foreign  policy  of  t^e  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  (1741-62):  influence  of 
La  Chetardie,  the  French  ambassador  (1741-44);  her  alliance  with 
Maria  Theresa  (1746),  to  whom  she  sent  an  army  (1748);  her  hatred 
for  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia;  the  director  of  her  policy,  the  Chan- 
cellor B^slJlS^v  (1744-58):  his  Austrian  sympathies;  part  of  Russia 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War;  open  partisanship  of  the  Grand  Duke  Peter 
for  Frederick  the  Great,  and  of  his  wife  the  Grand  Duchess  Catherine 
for  England;  overthrow  of  Bestushev  (1758);  the  administration  of  the 
Chancellor  Vorontsov  (1758-67). 

The  internal  government  of  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  :  her  character 
and  her  court ;  her  lovers  ;  Lestocq,  Razumovski,  Ivan  Shuvalov; 
intolerance   and   revival   of   religious   persecution ;    French   took   the 


Poland  in  the  i8th  Century,  119 

place  of  German  influence  at  the  Russian  Court;  the  Grand  Duchess 
Catherine  and  the  Shuvalovs  and  Vorontsovs  ;  Ivan  vShuvalov  founded 
the  University  of  Moscow  (1755). 

The  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth  succeeded  by  her  nephew,  Peter  III.,  Duke 
of  Holstein-Gottorp  (5  Jan.,  1762);  unpopularity  of  Peter  as  a  for- 
eigner and  adherent  of  foreign  ideas  ;  Peter  III.  overthrown  by  his  wife 
Catherine  (9  July,  1762). 

Murder  of  Peter  III.  (17  July)  ;  the  character  of  this  revolution ; 
character  of  Catherine  (b.  1729)  ;  unsoundness  of  her  title  ;  attempt  to 
bring  forward  the  Tsar  Ivan  VI-  from  his  prison  (see  p.  98);  his 
murder  (16  July,  1764). 

The  Tsaritsa  Catherine  II.  desired  to  emphasize  her  belief  in  the 
policy  of  Peter  the  Great ;  to  satisfy  the  Old  Russian  party,  she  re- 
solved to  pursue  an  aggressive  policy  in  Poland  ;  the  popularity  of  this 
policy  in  Russia  ;  Catherine  showed  her  intention  of  interfering  in  Po- 
lish afifairs  by  reinstating  Biren  in  Courland  (Jan.,  1763);  Charles  of 
Saxony,  son  of  the  King  of  Poland,  who  had  been  Duke  of  Courland 
since  1758,  forced  to  retire  (27  Apr.,  1763). 

Attitude  of  Frederick  the  Great  towards  Poland  :/^edesired  to  unite 
Royal  Prussia  to  his  dominions  ;  this  had  been  a  keynote  of  Hohenzol- 
lem  policy  since  the  proposal  of  Frederick  I.  to  Peter  the  Great  to  dis- 
member Poland  ^fyirther,  Frederick  was  afraid  that  Saxony  and  Poland 
might  be  permanently  united,  and  thus~cbunterbalance  the  power  of 
Prussia. 

The  attitude  of  Maria  Theresa  towards  Poland  :  her  determination 
that  Russia  and  Prussia  should  not  divide  Poland  without  giving  her  a 
portion  ;  she  was  urged  in  this  direction  by  her  son  Joseph  II.,  who  had 
become  Emperor  in  1765. 

Condition  of  Poland  :  its  poverty  and  bad  government  under  the 
Saxon  kings  ;  the  Roman  Catholic  majority  persecuted  the  Protestants 
and  the  Greek  Church  ;  non-Catholics  excluded  from  sitting  in  the  Diet 
(1719),  and  from  all  political  rights  (1733). 

The  two  parties  in  Poland  :  the  Pro-Saxon  and  the  Anti-Saxon  par- 
ties ;  Louis  XV.  supported  the  Pro-Saxon  party  owing  to  the  marriage 
of  the  Dauphin  to  aSaxon  orincess  ;  the  candidature  of  Conti. 

Death  of  Augustus  II.,  King  of  Poland  (5  Oct.,  1763)  :  his  death  fol- 


120  First  Partition  of  Poland » 

lowed  by  that  of  his  eldest  son  (17  Dec,  1763) ;  Frederick  Augustus, 
who  succeeded  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  was  too  young  to  obtain  the 
throne  of  Poland. 

Election  of  Stanislas  Poniatovski  (b.  1732,  d. '1798)  as  King  of  Po- 
land (7  Sept.,  1764),  by  the  influence  of  Russia  and  Prussia  ;  Frederick 
and  Catherine  had  made  a  defensive  alliance  for  this  purpose,  in  which 
they  guaranteed  the  constitutions  of  Poland  and  Sweden  (11  Apr., 
1764). 

The  reign  of  Stanislas  Poniatovski :  he  endeavored  in  vain  to  per- 
suade the  Diet  to  revoke  the  decree  of  1733,  and  to  admit  non-Catholics 
to  office  (1766)  ;  the  Confederation  of  Radom  ;  the  reforms  of  1768.: 
Catherine  declared  her  intention  of  maintaining  the  Polish  constitutioqi. 

Opposition  to  the  interference  of  Russia  :  formation  of  the  Confedera- 
tion of  Bar  (28  Feb.,  1769)  ;  Choiseul  desired  to  support  the  Confedera- 
tion of  Bar,  and  incited  the  Turks  to  att£.ck  Russia  ;  the  Russians 
marched  against  the  Confederates  of  Bar  ;  resistance  of  Pulaski ;  war 
between  the  patriotic  Poles  and  the  Russians  fighting  in  the  name  of 
King  Stanislas  (1768-72)  ;  help  sent  by  Choiseul ;  the  missions  of 
Taules  (1768),  Chateaufort  (1769),  Dumouriez  (1770)  and  Viomesnil 
(1771);  attempt  to  carry  off  the  King  (Nov.,  1771);  the  Confederation 
of  Bar  overthrown  by  Russian,  Prussian  and  Austrian  troops. 

The  Russo-Turkish  war ;  the  Turks  declared  war  against  Russia 
(6  Oct.,  1768);  the  Russians  conquered  Moldavia  (1769);  Wallachia 
(1770);  and  the  Crimea  (1771);  a  Russian  fleet  under  Alexis  Orlov 
sailed  around  into  the  Mediterranean  and  incited  the  Greeks  to  rebel ; 
the  Turkish  fleet  destroyed  at  Tchesme  (7-8  July,  1770). 

Frederick  the  Great  proposed  the  partition  of  Poland  ;  his  agreement 
with  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  at  Neiss  (Aug.,  1769);  the  proposition 
made  to  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine. 

The  negotiations  for  the  partition  of  Poland  (1770-72);  a  final  agree- 
ment made  by  the  Treaty  of  St.  Petersbui«g  (25  July,  1772);  the  Polish 
Diet  forced  to  consent  to  the  partition  treaty  (18  Sept.,  1773). 

By  the  first  partition  of  Poland  :  (i)  Frederick  received  Royal  Prussia, 
with  the  exception  of  Dantzig  and  Thorn,  thus  cpinecting  his  eastern 
dominions  with  Brandenburg  ;  (2)  Maria  Theresa  received  the  county 
of  Zips,  lyodomeria  and  Red  Russia  ;  (3)  Russia  received  Polish  Livonia 


Treaty  of  Kutschuk  Kainardji,  121 

and  Lithuania  to  the  east  of  the  Dwina  and  the  Dnieper ;  while  (4) 
Stanislas  Poniatovski  remained  ruler  of  the  diminished  central  district 
as  King  of  Poland. 

The  respective  advantages  gained  by  the  three  powers  in  the  first 
partition  of  Poland. 

Conclusion  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war:  campaign  of  1773;  death  of 
the  Sultan.  Mustapha  III.  (25  Dec,  1773);  campaign  of  1774;  victor- 
ies of  the  Russians  under  Rumiantsov;  Treaty  of  Kutschuk  Kainardji 
(21  July,  1774):  the  Russians  restored  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  but  re- 
tained Azov  and  Kinburn ;  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  declared  inde- 
^■^ent  of  Turkey;  Russian  ships  allowed  free  passage  through~lhe 
j^^rdanelles  and  on  the  Danube  ;  Russia  acknowledged  as  the  protector 
of  the  Danubian  principalities ;  the  Austrians  occupied  the  Bukovina, 
which  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  Turks  (7  May,  1775). 

Effect  of  the  partition  of  Poland  and  of  the  Treaty  of  Kutschuk 
Kainardji  upon  the  position  of  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine  II. 

Authorities:  The  best  small  book  on  this  subject  is  Sorei,  La  Question 
d'Orient  au  XVIIIidme  Siecle.  The  most  important  secondary  works  are 
Karhf^  Les  causes  de  la  chute  de  la  Pologne  (Revue  Historique,  1891);  Saint- 
Priest,  ifetudes  diplomatiques,  vol.  i.,  Partage  de  la  Pologne;  Herrmann,  Die  oes- 
terreichisch-preussische  AUianz  und  die  TheilungPolens;  Beer,  Die  erste  Theilung 
Polens,  and  Friedrich  II.  und  Van  Swieten  ;  De  Smitt,  Frederic  II.,  Catherine  et  le 
partage  de  la  Pologne ;  Michael,  Englands  Stellung  zur  ersten  Theilung  Polens ; 
Von  der  Briiggen,  Polens  Auflosung ;  Schlozer,  Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  Kath- 
arina  die  Zweite  ;  Janssen,  Zur  Genesis  der  ersten  Theilung  Polens ;  Gross- 
Hofinger,  Die  Theilung  Polens  ;  Ropell,  Polen  um  die  Mitte  des  XVIII.  Jahrhun- 
derts ;  Bfirral,  ifetudes  sur  I'histoire  diplomatique  de  I'Europe ;  Bofineville  de 
Marsangy,  Le  Chevalier  de  Vergennes,  son  amhassade  a  Constantinople,  and 
Broglie,  Le  secret  du  Roi.  The  celebrated  work  of  Rulhih'e,  Histoire  de  I'anarchie 
de  Pologne  et  du  demembrement  de  cette  rdpublique,  was  left  unfinished  and  only 
goes  to  1770;  it  was  continued  in  much  inferior  style  by  Ferrand,  Les  trois  de- 
membrements  de  la  Pologne.  Among  primary  authorities  see  Stanislas 
Poniatovski,  M^moires  secretes  et  intimes,  and  Correspon dance  avec  Madame 
Geoffrin,  ed.  De  Blotiy;  Viomesnil,  Lettres  particulieres  sur  les  affaires  de  Pologne 
(1771-2),  ed.  Grimoar^^umouriez,  M^moires,  and  Angeberg,  Recueil  des  trait^s, 
conventions,  et  actes  ^H|catiques  concernant  la  Pologne  ( 1762-1S62),  in  addition 
to  the  documents  in  th^Bfciik  and  the  Politische  Korrespondenz  Friedrich's  des 
Grossen. 


122  The   War  of  American  Independence. 

LECTURE  43. 


THE  WAR  OF   AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE. 

Interest  taken  it?  Europe  in  the  struggle  of  the  American  colonists  for 
independence:  unpopularity  of  England  on  the  Continent;  France  and 
Spain  desired  to  revenge  themselves  for  the  humiliations  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War  and  the  Peace  of  Paris  ;  Austria  v^^as  bound  to  France  by 
the  treaty  of  1756;  Frederick  the 'Great  of  Prussia  was  disgusted  by  the 
way  in  which  he  had  been  deserted  by  England  after  the  fall  of  Pitt ; 
Catherine  of  Russia  was  jealous  of  the  commercial  pretensions  of  EMt 
land;  the  republican  party  in  the  Protestant  Netherlands,  in  its  oppHp 
tion  to  the  House  of  Orange  and  to  England,  desired  to  help  the 
American  colonists. 

Enthusiasm  in  France  for  the  cause  of  American  liberty:  La  Fayette 
and  other  volunteers  joined  Washington  (1777);  Verg;ennes,  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  in  France  from  1774,  took  advantage  of  this  enthusiasm 
against  England;  treaty  of  alliance  signed  between  France  and  the 
United  States  (6  Feb.,  1778);  Turgot  and  Necker  opposed  to  war  for 
financial  reasons;  neglect  of  the  effect  which  assistance  to  a  republican 
movement  might  have  in  France  itself;  commencement  of  war  between 
England  and  France  (June,  1778). 

Spain  commenced  war  against  England  (June,  1779);  causes  for  this 
action;  influence  of  the  Pacte  de  Famille. 

The  position  in  the  United  Provinces  :  war  declared  by  England 
against  the  Dutch  (20  Dec,  1780). 

Attitude  of  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine:  formation  of  the  Armed  Neu- 
trality or  Neutral  League  of  the  North ;  Catherine's  declaration  (9 
Mar.,  1280)  acceded  to  by  Denmark  (9  July  1780),  Sweden  (i  Aug.,. 
1780),  the  Dutch  (4  Jan.,  1781),  ,£russia^i9  May,  1781),  Austria  (9 
Oct.,  i78i),"PQ^gal  (24  July,  1782),  and  the  Two  Sicilies  (21  Feb., 

1783). 

Complete  isolation  of  England  during  the  War  of  American  Inde- 
pendence; her  internal  troubles  ;  weakness  o^^^overnment;  danger 
threatened  in  Ireland  ;  England's  fall  from  iWPeat  position  she  had 
occupied  during  the  ministry  of  Pitt ;   England's  only  resources  her 


The   War  of  Americajt  Indepeyidence,  123 

naval  eflficiency  and  wealth  ;  her  naval  supremacy  threatened  by  the 
new  French  and  Spanish  navies  created  by  Choiseul  and  Sartine,  by 
ArandaandX)'Reilly. 

England's  efforts  to  extend  the  war  against  France  to  Europe,  in  con- 
nection with  the  question  of  the  Bavarian  Succession,  frustrated  by  the 
policy  of  Vergennes  and  the  Treaty  of  Teschen  (13  May,  1779). 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  a  base  of  operations  on  the  Continent,  the 
war  was  essentially  naval. 

Campaign  of  1778:  the  battle  off  Ushant  between  Keppel  and  D'Or- 
villiers  (27  July);  a  French  fleet  under  D'Estaing  came  to  the  help  of 
the  American  colonists;  Bouille  took  Dominica  (8  Sept.);  the  English 
took  Saint  Lucia  (14  Dec.)  and  Pondicherry  (17  Oct.). 

Campaign  of  1779:  Spain  commenced  war  and  a  French  and  Spanish 
army  and  fleet  laid  siege  to  Gibraltar ;  Eliott's  defence  of  Gibraltar ; 
D'Estaing  took  Saint  Vincent  (19  June)  and  Grenada  (4  July);  defeated 
in  an  attack  on  Savannah  (9  Oct.);  D'Orvilliers  with  a  French  and 
Spanish  fleet  commanded  the  Channel,  but  failed  to  effect  a  landing  in 
England;  failure  of  Nassau-Siegen's  expedition  against  Jersey  (i  May); 
the  French  took  Senegal  (30  Jan. -6  Mar.),  and  the  English  took  Goree, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa;  the  English  took  Mahe,  in  India. 

Campaign  of  1780:  Rodney  relieved  Gibraltar  and  defeated  the  Span- 
iards off  Cape  Saint  Vincent  (16  Jan.);  Rochambeau  arrived  in  America 
with  a  French  army;  naval  battles  in  the  West  Indies  between  De 
Guichen  and  Rodney  (17  April,  15,  19  May);  Haidar  Ali  overran  the 
Presidency  of  Madras  and  asked  for  French  help. 

Campaign  of  1781:  Rodney  took  Saint  Eustatia  (3  Feb.);  Bouille  took 
Tobago  (2  June);  DeGrasse  by  sea  and  Rochambeau  on  land  cooperated 
with  Washington  in  forcing  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  York  town 
(19  Oct.);  battle  between  the  English  and  Dutch  off  the  Doggerbank 
(5  Aug.);  Bouille  took  Saint  Eustatia  (26  Nov.);  defeat  of  Haidar  Ali 
by  Eyre  Coote  at  Porto  Novo  (7  July). 

Campaign  of  1782:  the  Spaniards  took  Minorca  (5  Feb.);  Bouill6 
took  Saint  Kitts  (12  Feb.);  Rodney  (b.  1717,  d.  1792)  won  a  great  vic- 
tory over  De  Grasse  (12  Apr.);  Howe  relieved  Gibraltar  (18  Oct.); 
series  of  battles  between  De  Suffren  and  Hughes  off  the  coast  of  India; 
Bussy  took  command  of  a  French  force  in  India;  death  of  Haidar  Ali 
(7  Dec). 


124  The   Treaty  of  Versailles. 

General  weariness  of  the  war:  retirement  of  Lord  North  (20  March, 
1782);  the  i^ew  English  ministry  resolved  to  recognize  the  independ- 
ence of  the  American  colonies;  preliminaries  of  peace  signed  with  the 
United  States  (30  Nov.,  1782),  with  France  and  Spain  (20  Jan.  :^3); 
signature  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (3  Se^tj,^83),  accepted  later  by 
the  Dutch. 

Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles :  England  recognized  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States,  restored  Minorca  and  Florida  to  Spain, 
and  ceded  Tobago  and  Saint  Lucia,  Senegal  and  Goree,  to  France;  the 
status  quo  ante  bellum  restored  in  India,  except  that  England  obtained 
Negapatam  from  the  Dutch. 

Results  of  the  War  of  American  Independence  :  weakening  of  Eng- 
land by  her  colonial  losses  and  the  belief  that  her  naval  supremacy  had 
gone  forever  ;  increase  in  the  confusion  of  the  finances  of  France  ; 
spread  of  a  current  of  opinion  favorable  to  self-government  and  opposed 
to  monarchy. 

Foreign  policy  of  the  younger  Pitt,  who  had  become  Prime  Minister 
of  England  in  1784,  during  the  first  years  of  his  administration. 

Authorities :  Stevens,  Facsimiles  of  Manuscripts  in  European  Archives;  the 
Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolution  ed.  Wharton;  Franklin, 
Works  ;  Adams,  Works  ;  Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the  iSth  Century;  Mahan, 
Influence  of  Sea  Power  in  History;  Doniol,  Histoire  de  la  participation  de  la 
France  ^  la  liberation  des  Eitats-TJnis  d'Amdrique ;  Batchy  Les  Fran9ais  en 
Am^rique  pendant  la  guerre  de  I'independance  des  ifetats-Unis ;  Chevalier^ 
Histoire  de  la  marine  fran5aise  pendant  la  guerre  de  I'independance  americaine  ; 
Fauchille,  La  diplomatie  fran^aise  et  la  ligue  des  neutres  de  1780 ;  Ber^bohm, 
Die  bewafifnete  Neutralitat  (1780-3);  Andrews,  History  of  the  War  with  America, 
France,  Spain  and  Holland,  in  1775-83 ;  Mundy,  Life  of  George,  Lord  Rodney; 
Drinkwater,  The  Three  Sieges  of  Gibraltar ;  Sayer,  History  of  Gibraltar,  and 
Malleson,  Final  French  Struggles  in  India. 


LECTURE  44. 


FRANCE  UNDER  LOUIS  XVL 

Character  of  Louis  XVI.  (b.  1754):  his  attitude  towards  measures  of 
internal  reform  ;  his  interest  in  naval  affairs  ;  his  attitude  towards  for- 


The  Policy  of  Vergermes.  125 

eign  politics  ;   his  personal  relations  with  the  Emperor  Joseph  ;  Marie 
Antoinette  (b.  1755);  her  influence  in  internal  and  foreign  politics. 

Maurepas  (b.  1701),  Chief  Minister  (1774-81)  ;  his  character  and 
career;  recall  of  the  Parleraents  (12  Nov.,  1774)  ;  the  colleagues  of 
Maurepas;  Vergennes  (1774-87),  Foreign  Affairs  ;  Turgot  (1774-76), 
Necker  (1776-81),  Finances;  Saint-Germain  (1775-77),  M9pthflrrev 
(1777-80),  Marechal  deS^g^ur 1 1780-87).  War;  Sartine  (1774-80),  Cas- 
tries (1780-87)7  Marine. 

The  administration  of  the  army  :  reforms  of  Saint-Germain  ;  writings 
of  Guibert ;  improvements  in  organization  ;  the  military  schools  ;  or- 
ganization of  the  artillery  by  Gribeauval  ;  formation  of  the  general 
stafif(i783);  decree  of  22  May,  1781,  excluding  all  but  nobles  from 
commissions  in  the  army. 

The  administration  of  the  navy  :  the  vigor  of  Sartine  in  ship  build- 
ing ;  foundation  of  Cherbourg  (1779)  ;  the  regulations  of  Castries. 

The  foreip;n  policy  of  Vergennes  (b.  17 17)  :    his  attitude  towards  / 
the  Spanish  and  the  Austrian  alliances. 

Vergennes  and  the  smaller  states  of  Europe  :  Vergennes  and  Sweden  ; 
Vergennes  and  Italy  ;  Vergennes  and  the  Turks ;  embassies  of  Saint- 
Priest  (1768-84),  and  of  Choiseul-Gouflfier  (1784-92)  ;  the  treaty  of  1779 
by  which  the  Turks  gave  free  navigation  in  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
Russians,  and  the  Convention  of  1784  by  which  they  recognized  the  . 
annexation  of  the  Crimea  to  Russia.  • 

Vergennes  and  Russia :  joint  mediation  for  the  Treaty  of  T^grh^n 
(1779)  ;  the  Armed  Neutrality  (1780")  ;  visit  of  the  Grand  Duke  Paul  to 
Paris  (1782) ;  the  embassy  of  Segur  (1784-89) ;  the  commercial 
treaty  of  1787  ;  Vergennes'  attitude  towards  Joseph  II.  and  Frederick 
the  Great. 

The  part  taken  by  France  against  England  during  the  War  of  Amer- 
ican Independence  ;  Vergennes  induced  Spain  to  commence  war  against 
England;  gains  made  by  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (1783); 
conclusion  of  a  commercial  treaty  between  England  and  France  (1786). 

Vergennes  and  the  Dutch :  his  intervention  in  the  dispute  between 
Joseph  II.  and  United  Provinces  ;  by  his  mediation  the  Treaty  of 
Fontainebleau  was  signed  (10  Nov.,  1875);  his  attitude  in  the  troubles 
between  the  Stadtholder  and  "  the  Patriots." 


126  Turgot  and  Necker, 

Death  of  Vergennes  (13  Feb.  1787);  ability  shown  bv  Verg^ennes.  in 
rnnrrnjjji^;  the  rrni  wrnVnrnn  of  Frnnnr  ;  v^ergennes  succeeded  as  Min- 
ister for  Foreign  Affairs  by  Montmorin. 

Internal  administration  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI. :  influence  of 
the  Court;  p^^-tnrrnr^nri"  fif  Mnrir  Antoinette:  her  unpopularity  at 
Court  and  among  the  people. 

The  reforms  of  Turcot /b.  1727,  d.  1781):  his  previous  career  and  eco- 
nomic ideas  ;  his  attempts  to  reform  the  financial  administration  ;  op- 
position to  his  schemes;  he  established  internal  f|-pf^  traHf^  in  grain  (13 
Sept.,  1774),  and  attacked  all  restrictions  on  freedom  of  labor  and  free- 
dom of  trade  ;  his  decrees  replacing  the  corvee,  or  forced  labor  on  the 
roads,  by  a  tax  and  abolishing  guilds  passed  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  Patlement  of  Paris  (12  March,  1776);  his  desire  to  oyerthrow  the 
relics  of  feudalism  and  to  improve  agriculture^  his  scheme  of  national 
education ;  tHe"°work  of  Malesherbes  (1775-76);  dismissal  of  Turgot 
(13  May,  1776). 

The  financial  administration  of  Necker  (b.  1732,  d.  1804):  his  endea- 
vors to  dra3aiLlipAinlance...shaQt>4^~^aace  ;  his  financial  methods  and 
proposed  reforms  ;  excitement  caused  by  the  publication  of  the  Compte 
Rendu;  dismissal  of  Necker  (19  May,  1781). 

Attempt  at  improving  local  administration  ;  formation  of  Eroiiincial 
Assemblies  for  Berrv  (1778),  Upper  Guienne  (1779)  and  the  Bourbon- 
nais(i78o). 

The  financial  administrations  of  Joly  de  Fleury  and  D'Ormesson 
(1781-83). 

The  financial  administration  of  Calonne  (b.  1734,  d.  1802):  his  sys- 
tem of  loans  ;  his  propositions  for  increased  taxation  ;  increase  of  the^ 
deficit;  convocation  of  the  Assembly  of  Notables  (1787);  first  mention 
of  summoning  a  States- General;  dismissal  of  Calonne  (8  April,  1787). 

Administration  of  Lomenie  de  Brienne  fb.  1727,  d.  1794):  his 
struggle  with  the  Parlements  ;  his  measures  of  reform ;  excitement  in 
France  at  the  exile  of  the  Parlements;  the  Assembly  at  Vizille  (21 
July,  1788);  promise  of  a  speedy  convocation  of  the  States- General; 
dismissal  of  Lomenie  de  Brienne  (25  Aug.,  1788). 

Qor^j^^^  o^miticfrafinn  nf  Mpp1?pf  his  preparations  for  the  elections-to 
the  States- General;  second  meeting  of  the  Notables  (Nov.,  1788). 


France  u?ider  Louis  XVI.  127 

Attitude  of  the  King,  Queen  and  the  Court  during  these  years;  grow- 
ing unpopularity  of  the  Queen ;  the  affair  of  the  Diamond  Necklace 
(1784-85). 

Tt]creasing  demand  fr>r  rpfnrm  in  Pranrp-  general  desirc  to  remodel 
the  administrative  system  and  submit  it  to  some  degree  of  popular  con- 
trol ;    the  ^anrial   rnnrlitinn   preHpitnted  a  politioal   ypsis-    the   King 

and  his  ministers  looked  upon  the  States-General  as  a  financial  expe- 
dient; the  people,  as  the  commencement  of  political  and  administrative 
r^orm. 

Position  of  France  at  home  and  abroad  on  the  eve  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

Authorities :  Most  histories  of  the  French  Revolution  begin  with  a  sketch  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  and  all  studies  of  the  causes  of  the  French  Revolution 
and  accounts  of  the  Ancien  Regime  describe  the  condition  of  France  during  his 
reign.  Of  general  secondary  works,  reference  may  be  made  to  Jobez^  La 
France  sous  Louis  XVI.;  Droz,  Histoire  du  regne  de  Louis  XVI.;  Chtrest,  La 
chute  de  I'ancien  regime  ;  Tratchevsky,  La  France  et  TAllemagne  sous  Louis 
XVI.,  and  Tocqueville,  Coup  d'oeil  sur  le  r^gne  de  Louis  XVI.  Of  a  more  special 
character  are:  Correspondance  secrete  entre  Marie  Th^rese  et  Mercy-Argenteau,  ed. 
Ameth  and  Geffroy ;  Mention,  Le  comte  de  Saint-Germain  et  ses  rdformes ; 
Barral-Mont/errat,  Dix  ans  de  paix  arm^e  cntre  la  France  et  I'Angleterre  (1783-93); 
Segur-Diipeyron,  Histoire  des  negociations  commerciales  et  maritimes  de  la  France, 
vol.  iii  ;  Lord  Auckland,  Journal  and  Correspondence  ;  Foncin,  Essai  sur  le  minis- 
t^re  de  Turgot ;  Neymarck,  Turgot  et  ses  doctrines ;  Tissot,  Etude  sur  Turgot ; 
Condorcet,  Vie  de  Turgot ;  Necker,  CBuvres ;  Lavergne,  Les  Assemblees  provin- 
ciales  sous  Louis  XVL,  and  Lominie,  Beaumarchais  et  sou  temps  ;  La  Rocheterie, 
Histoire  de  Marie  Antoinette  ;  Campardon,  Marie  Antoinette  et  le  proc^  du  collier  ; 
Renke,  Louis  XVL  et  sa  cour  ;  Louis  XVL,  Journal,  ed.  Nicolardot,  and  Lanzac 
de  Laborie,  Jean  Jacques  Mounier.  Among  primary  authorities  see  the 
Memoires  of  Besenval,  Weber,  Augeard,  Madame  Campan,  Montbarrey,  Sigur 
an^  Th iiba7ilt, dindi  the  Souvenirs  of  D' Hezecques. 


LECTURE   45. 


Prussia  under  Frederick  the  great. 

Ruined  condition  of  the  dominions  of  Frederick  the  Great  after  the 
close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War. 


128  Frederick  the   Great. 

The  internal  administration  of  Frederick:  his  measures  for  restoring 
prosperity  ;  paternal  government ;  Frederick's  attitude  towards  agri- 
culture, manufactures  and  commerce  ;  his  attempt  to  improve  farming; 
distribution  of  seeds  and  introduction  of  the  potato  ;  his  encouragement 
of  colonists  ;  establishment  of  ' '  land-banks ' '  ;  his  East  India  Com- 
pany ;  Frederick  regarded  the  material  prosperity  of  his  people  as  the 
chief  end  of  the  administration. 

Frederick's  conception  of  monarchy :  his  understanding  of  the 
"  Aufgeklarte  Despotismus  " ;  he  held  that  his  absolutism  could  be 
justified  only  by  earnest  work  for  the  good  of  his  people. 

The  administrative  machinery  created  by  Frederick  the  Great :  fol- 
lowing his  father's  example,  he  confided  the  administration  to  a  bureau- 
cracy composed  of  men  of  the  middle  class  and  dependent  entirely  upon 
himself;  comparison  between  the  French  and  the  Prussian  bureau- 
cracies :  the  former  hindered,  while  the  latter  promoted,  general  pros- 
perity at  the  close  of  the  i8th  century,  because  Prussia  was  more  back- 
ward in  civilization  than  France. 

Frederick  the  Great's  attitude  towards  his  nobility  :  he  employed  no- 
bles in  the  army  rather  than  in  the  civil  service,  and  formed  them  into 
a  military  caste. 

Frederick  the  Great  and  serfdom  :  he  maintained  the  authority  of  the 
nobles  upon  their  estates  as  part  of  the  compensation  for  excluding  them 
from  political  power  and  as  an  inducement  to  them  to  continue  their 
services  in  the  army  ;  but  he  endeavored  to  abolish  or  reduce  the  harsh- 
ness of  serfdom  on  the  royal  domains. 

Frederick  the  Great  and  the  Prussian  army  :  he  perceived  that  the 
very  existence  of  Prussia  depended  upon  the  efiiciency  of  the  army  ;  he 
therefore  devoted  his  attention  to  the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army 
of  200,000  men,  a  force  disproportionate  to  the  size  and  population  of  his 
dominions  ;  the  excellence  and  the  weakness  of  the  Prussian  army  dur- 
ing the  latter  years  of  Frederick's  reign  ;  his  camps  of  exercise  ;  perfec- 
tion of  drill  and  discipline  maintained  in  the  Prussian  army  ;  Frederick's 
system  imitated  in  other  countries. 

Admiration  felt  in  Germany  for  the  administrative  and  military  sys- 
tem of  Frederick  the  Great ;  he  was  thus  enabled  to  draw  upon  the 
whole  of  Germany  for  able  servants,  and  the  Prussian  idea  of  govern- 
ment penetrated  beyond  the  borders  of  Prussia. 


Frederick  the  Great.  129 

Contrast  between  the  absolutism  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France  and  of 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  :  Louis  X^Vj.  said,  "I  am  the  State  "; 
Frederick  the  Great  said,  "  I  am  the  first  servant  of  the  State". 

Frederick  the  Great  considered  as  a  typical  enlightened  despot  of  the 
i8th  century:  (i)  his  great  public  works,  as  the  making  of  canals  and 
roads,  the  draining  of  marshes  and  the  improvement  of  Berlin  ;  (2)  his 
endeavors  to  simplify  and  codify  the  system  of  laws  in  the  Codex  Fre- 
dericiana,  the  work  of  the  Chancellor  Cocceji  ;  (3)  he  discouraged  all 
idea  of  local  or  municipal  self-government ;  (4)  he  insisted  upon  abso- 
lute toleration  of  religious  worship  while  ready  to  pose  as  the  protector 
of  Protestantism  ;  (5)  he  established  a  system  of  compulsory  primary- 
education. 

Frederick  the  Great  differed  from  the  other  enlightened  despots  in  his 
neglect  of  national  higher  education  and  in  his  refusal  to  adopt  sound 
economic  ideas  in  collecting  his  revenue  ;  no  general  advance  in  intel- 
lectual development  or  in  material  prosperity  is  therefore  to  be  per- 
ceived during  his  reign. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Frederick  the  Great  may  be  considered  as  national 
and  as  German  ;  after  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  he  abandoned* 
all  hope  of  a  close  alliance  with  England  and  entered  into  intimate  re- 
lations with  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  ;  with  her  help  he  carried  out  the 
first  partition  of  Poland,  and  thus  united  Prussia  with  Brandenburg 
territorially;  close  alliance  with  Russia  the  keynote  of  Frederick  the 
Great's  later  national  policy  ;  Frederick  the  Great  joined  the  Armed 
Neutrality  started  by  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine  against  England  ( 1781). 

Frederick  the  Great's  German  policy  :  his  relations  with  Maria 
Theresa  and  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  ;  the  War  of  the  Bavarian  Succes- 
sion, or  "  Potato  War  ";  on  the  death  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  Elector  of 
Bavaria  (30  Dec,  1777),  the  succession  passed  to  the  Elector  Palatine, 
Charles  Theodore,  who  was  induced  to  cede  eastern  Bavaria  to  Austria 
in  return  for  a  guarantee  of  the  rest  ;  Frederick  the  Great  intervened, 
basing  his  interference  on  the  rights  of  the  Princes  of  the  Empire  ;  a 
Prussian  army  invaded  Bohemia  (1778),  but  no  battle  took  place  ; 
France,  engaged  in  the  War  of  American  Independence  against  Eng- 
land, declined  to  interfere  to  help  Austria,  and  eventually,  under  the 
mediation  of  France  and  Russia,  the  Bavarian  question  was  settled  by 
the  Treaty  of  Teschen  (13  May,  1779). 


130  Frederick  the  Great. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Teschen,  Charles,  Duke  of  Zweibriicken,  or  Deux- 
Ponts,  was  recognized  as  heir  to  both  the  electorates  of  the  childless 
Charles  Theodore  ;  Austria  received  the  district  between  Passau  and 
Salzburg,  called  "  the  Quarter  of  the  Inn  ";  the  Elector  of  Saxony  was 
was  given  6,000,000  florins  ;  while  Frederick  the  Great  was  guaranteed 
the  succession  to  Anspach  and  Baireuth. 

The  schemes  of  Joseph  II.  upon  Bavaria  induced  Fre -erick  the  Great 
at  the  close  of  his  reign  oncg  more  to  stand  forth  as  defender  of  the 
rights  of  the  Empire  ;  Joseph  II.  proposed  to  cede  the  Catholic  Nether- 
lands to  Charles  Theodore  in  exchange  for  Bavaria  ;  to  thwart  this 
scheme  Frederick  the  Great  in  1785  formed  the  Fiirstenbund,  or  League 
of  Princes,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  constitution  of  the  Empire  as 
established  by  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia  ;  Joseph  II.  forced  to  abandon 
his  scheme. 

Death  of  Frederick  the  Great  (17  Aug.,  1786). 

Extension  of  the  Hohenzollern  dominions  during  his  reign  ;  annexa- 
tion of  Silesia  (1742)  ;  succession  to  East  Friesland  (1744)  under  a  grant 
of  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.  to  Frederick  I.,  and  acquirement  of  Royal 
Prussia  at  the  first  partition  of  Poland  (1773). 

Increase  of  the  power  of  Prussia  during  his  reign  ;  Prussia  ceased  to 
be  merely  a  German  state  and  became  an  European  power. 

Prussia  was,  after  the  battle  of  Rossbach,  the  state  to  which  be- 
lievers in  the  unity  of  Germany  looked  for  inspiration  and  guidance. 

Character  of  Frederick  the  Great :  he  was  the  typical  monarch  of  the 
i8th  as  Louis  XIV.  was  of  the  17th  century. 

Authorities:  For  the  internal  development  of  Prussia  during  the  reign  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  see  the  general  works  by  Berner,  Stenzel,  Droysen,  Ranke^ 
Philippson  and  Cavaignac,  cited  under  Lecture  36,  with  the  special  works  on 
Frederick  by  Koser  and  others,  cited  under  Lectures  yj,  38,  39  and  41,  and 
Oncken,  Das  Zeitalter  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  ;  Lavisse,  :fetudes  sur  I'histoire  de 
?russe ;  Reimann,  Abhandlungen  zur  Geschichte  Friedrichs  des  Grossen.  On  his 
idministration  see  Bornhak,  Isaacsohn,  Stadelmaun,  vol.  ii,  cited  under  Lecture 
36  ;  Griinhagen,  Schlesien  unter  Friedrich  den  Grossen  ;  Grilnberg^  Die  Bauernbe- 
freiung  in  Bohmen,  Mahren,  und  Schlesien  ;  Bornhak,  Die  Bauernbefreiung  und 
die  Gutsherrlichkeit  in  Preussen  ;  Knapp,  Die  Bauernbefreiung  und  der  Ursprnng 
der  Landarbeiter  in  den  alteren  Theilen  Preussens  :  Trendelenburg,  Friedrich  der 
Grosse  und  sein  Grosskanzler  Samuel  vonCocceji;  Holtze,  Geschichte  des  Kammer- 


Catherine  the  Great,  131 

\ 
gerichts  in  Brandenburg-Preussen,  and  Ring,  Asiatische  Handlungscompagnien 
Friedrichs  des  Grossen.  The  primary  authorities  are  Frederick's  own  Worka, 
his  Politische  Korrespondenz,  ed.  Koser,  etc.,  and  the  State  Papers  published  by 
the  Prussian  government.  For  his  latter  years  see  Reimantiy  Gcschichte  des 
Bairischen  Erbfolgekrieges  ;  Beer,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Bairischen  Erbfolgekrieges 
(Historische  Zeitschrift,  vol.  xxxv.);  Saint-Priest,  ifetudes  diplomatiques,  vol.  i. 
Le  Congr^s  de  Teschen  ;  Taysen,  Die  militarische  Thatigkeit  Friedrichs  des  Gros- 
sen wahrend  seines  letzten  Lebensjahres  ;  Ranke,  Die  Deutschen  Miichte  und  der 
Fiirstenbund  (in  his  Werke,  vols,  xxxi,  xxxii);  G.  IVoif,  CEsterreich  und  Preussen, 
1780-90 ;  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der  Preussisch-Deutschen  Unionsbestrebungen ; 
Erdmannsdorffer,  Aus  den  Zeiten  des  Deutschen  Fiirstenbundes,  and  C.  W.  von 
Dohm,  DenkwUrdigkeiten,  and  Uber  den  Deutschen  Fiirstenbund.  For  his  per- 
sonality, see  in  addition  to  Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  the  Great ;  Lavisse,  La 
jeunesse  du  grand  Fr6d^ric,  and  Le  grand  Frederic  avant  I'av^nement ;  Rigollot^ 
Fr^d^ric  II.,  philosophe ;  Zeller,  Friedrich  der  Grosse  als  Philosoph ;  Cauer, 
Friedrichs  des  Grossen  Gedanken  liber  die  furstliche  Gewalt ;  Thiebault,  Mes 
souvenirs  de  vingt  ans  de  s6jour  a  Berlin  ;  Margravine  of  Baireuth,  Memoirs ; 
Pollniiz,  Memoirs  ;  De  Catt,  Memoiren,  ed.  Koser,  and  Desnoiresterres,  Voltaire  et 
Fr^ddric  II.  For  a  contemporary  account  of  the  actual  condition  of  Prussia  and 
the  working  of  the  government,  see  Mirabeau  (  and  Mauvillon),  Dela  Monarchic 
prussienne  sous  Frederic  le  Grand. 


LECTURE  46. 


RUSSIA  UNDER  CATHERINE  THE  GREAT. 

Catherine  the  Great's  administration  of  the  Russian  Empire  :  she  fol- 
lowed the  ideas  of  Peter  the  Great  in  ruling  through  a  bureaucratic  sj'S* 
tem  entirely  dependent  upon  the  will  of  the  ruler  and  consisting  chiefly 
of  foreigners,  but  she  preserved  the  attachment  of  the  Russian  people 
by  meeting  the  national  wishes  for  territorial  expansion. 

Catherine  summoned  an  assembly  from  all  parts  and  all  classes  of  the 
Empire  to  draw  up  a  code  of  laws  (1766-68),  but  Russia  was  not  suflS- 
ciently  advanced  in  civilization  for  such  a  benefit. 

Catherine's  reforms  in  internal  administration  :  the  Empire  divided 
into   forty-four  governments,  in  the  place  of  the  eight  of  Peter  the 


132  Catherine  the  Great. 

Great ;  subdivision  into  districts  ;  the  assemblies  of  the  nobility  ;  lib- 
eral treatment  of  the  towns,  which  were  given  muncipal  independence ; 
formation  of  courts  of  justice  for  the  nobles,  the  bourgeois  and  the  free 
peasants  in  each  district  and  government,  with  final  appeal  to  the  Sen- 
ate ;  resumption  of  the  lands  and  serfs  of  the  Church,  the  profits  from 
which,  after  paym^fit^'The^monks,  were  used  for  educational  and 
charitable  purposes  ;  general  religious  tolerance  shown  even  to  Muham- 
madans  and  Jesuits. 

Catherine's  great  public  works  :  she  made  canals  and  improved  agri- 
culture and  means  of  communication  ;  she  encouraged  commerce  and 
manufactures ;  her  commercial  treaties  with  England  and  France ; 
establishment  of  German  colonies  ;  foundation  of  new  cities. 

Catherine  and  the  intellectual  development  of  Russia  :  she  founded 
the  Russian  Acadv:imy  (1783)  and  encouraged  foreigners  to  visit  and 
describe  her  country  ;  like  Frederick  the  Great,  she  kept  in  touch  with 
the  intellectual  movement  of  Western  Europe  ;  her  friendship  with 
Diderot  and  correspondence  With  Grimm. 

Attitude  of  Catherine  towards  serfdom  :  she  endeavored  to  regulate 
but  not  abolish  it ;  she  forbade  the  public  sale  of  serfs  or  the  separation 
of  families  ;  the  case  of  Daria  Soltikov. 

Catherine's  method  of  government :  she  kept  the  direction  of  affairs 
in  her  own  hands  ;  her  diligence  and  insight ;  her  attitude  towards  her 
ministers  and  her  lovers. 

Catherine  and  her  Court  :  she  made  use  of  her  discarded  lovers  in 
the  management  of  affairs  ;  the  importance  of  the  Orlovs  (1762-72),  and 
of  Potemkin  (1774-76)  ;  her  wisdom  in  selecting  her  lovers  from  among 
the  Russians  and  not  from  foreigners  ;  her  last  lover,  Zubov  (1789-96). 

Catherine's  zeal  in  carrying  out  the  plans  of  Peter  the  Great  and  in 
fulfilling  the  ambitions  of  the  Russian  people  in  foreign  politics  kept 
the  Russians,  and  even  the  members  of  the  Old  Russian  party,  faithful 
to  her  in  spite  of  her  being  a  German  and  of  her  maintenance  of  West- 
ern ideas  ;  her  adherence  to  Russian  ideals  necessary  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  her  power. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Catherine  the  Great  (1762-80)  marked  by  alli- 
ances with  England  and  Prussia  ;  treaty  of  commerce  with  England 
(1766)  ;  the  administration  of  Panin  ;  the  partition  of  Poland  (1773), 


Catherine  the  Great.  133 

and  first  Turkish  war  (1768-74)  ;  Catherine  remained  on  good  terms 
with  Frederick  the  Great,  and  expected  the  assistance  of  Prussia  in  the 
further  partition  of  Poland,  but  she  began  to  look  to  Austria  for  as- 
sistance in  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Turks. 

Catherine  and  Germany  :  first  interference  of  Russia  in  a  purely  Ger- 
man matter  at  the  time  of  the  War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession  (1778)  ; 
Catherine  declared  for  the  maintenance  of  the  rights  of  the  Princes  of 
the  Empire  ;  her  joint  mediation  with  France  brought  about  the  Treaty 
of  Teschen  (13  May,  1779). 

Catherine's  change  of  attitude  towards  England  and  France ;  the 
Armed  Neutrality  (1780)  ;  administration  of  foreign  affairs  entrusted  to 
Bezborodko  (1781)  ;  the  embassy  of  Segur  (1784-89)  ;  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  France  (1787). 

Catherine  and  Joseph  II.  :  the  interview  at  Mohilev  (May,  1780); 
Catherine,  believing  the  Turkish  question  more  pressing  than  the  Po- 
lish question,  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  Austria  ;  Joseph  II. 
agreed,  in  the  hope  of  separating  Russia  from  Prussia  ;  gradual  alien- 
ation of  Catherine  from  Prussia  ;  effect  of  the  death  of  Frederick  the 
Great  (1786). 

The  policy  of  Potemkin  (b.  1736,  d.  1791):  after  being  the  lover  of 
Catherine  from  1774  to  1776,  he  became  her  chief  executive  agent  and 
practically  independent  ruler  of  southern  Russia;  he  desired  to  overthrow 
the  Turks  and  conquer  Constantinople  ;  the  Turks,  by  the  intervention 
of  Vergennes,  permitted  the  Russians  free  navigation  in  the  Black  Sea 

(1779). 

Potemkin  put  down  the  rising  of  Cossacks  and  Tartars  under 
Pugatchev  (1774),  and  in  1783  conquered  the  Crimea,  which  had  been 
declared  an  independent  state  by  the  Treaty  of  Kutschuk  Kainardji ; 
the  annexation  of  the  Crimea  to  Russia  recognized  by  the  Turkish  Sul- 
tan, through  the  influence  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Constantinople 
(11  Jan.  1784);  Catherine's  famous  journey  to  the  Crimea  (1787); 
Catherine  proposed  a  Quadruple  Alliance  of  Russia,  Austria,  France 
and  Spain.  ^         ""  ' 

The  Turks  declared  war  against  Russia  (16  Aug.,  1787);  Joseph  II. 
came  to  the  help  of  Russia  (9  Feb.,  1788). 

Campaign  of  1787  :  Suvorov  (b.  1729,  d.  1800)  repulsed  the  Turkish 
attack  on  the  Crimea.        v^.^*^ 


1^4  The  Russo-Turkish    War^   iy8j-g^. 

Campaign  of  1788  :  the  Austrians  under  Loudon  took  Dubitza  and 
Novi-Bazar  (3  Oct.),  and  under  Coburg,  with  the  help  of  the  Russians, 
occupied  Moldavia  and  took  Choczim  (19  Sept);  defeat  and  flight  of 
the  Austrian  army  commanded  by  the  Kmperor  Joseph  (14,  20  Sept.); 
the  Russians  under  Potemkin  and  Suvorov  stormed  Ochakov  (17  Dec); 
Pitt  prepared  an  English  fleet ;  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden  declared  war 
against  Russia  and  invaded  Russian  Finland  (July). 

Campaign  of  1789  :  death  of  the  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  I.  and  acces- 
sion of  Selim  III.  (7  Apr.);  the  Turks  defeated  by  the  Austrians  and 
Russians  under  Coburg  and  Suvorov  at  Foksany  (i  August)  and  on 
the  Rymnik  (22  Sept.);  the  Austrians  under  Loudon  took  Belgrade 
(9  Oct.)  and  under  Coburg  took  Bucharest;  the  Russians  under  Po- 
temkin defeated  the  Turks  at  Tobac  and  took  Bender  (14  Nov.);  the 
Russian  fleet  under  Nassau- Siege^defeated  the  Swedes  (24  Aug.). 

Campaign  of  1790  :  Clerfayi  took  Orsova  (16  Apr.)  and  defeated  the 
Turks  at  Kalafat  (26  June);  armistice  was  made  between  the  Austrians 
and  Turks  at  Giurgevo  (19  Sept.);  the  Russian  fleet  defeated  by  the 
Swedes  at  Svenska  Sound  (28  June),  and  the  Treaty  of  Verela  signed 
betw^een  Sweden  and  Russia  (14  Aug.);  the  Russians  under  Suvorov 
stormed  Ismail  (22  Dec). 

Campaign  of  1791  :  the  Austrians  made  peace  with  the  Turks  at 
Sistova  (4  Aug.);  Catherine  continued  the  war  alone;  the  Russians 
under  Repnin  defeated  the  Turks  at  Matchin  (9  July);  negotiations 
for  peace  ;  death  of  Potemkin  (16  Oct.,  1791). 

By  the  Treaty  of  Jassy  (9  Jan.,  1792),  peace  was  made  between 
Russia  and  the  Turks,  by  which  Russia  retained  Ochakov  and  the 
coast  line  between  the  mouths  of  the  Bug  and  the  JQniester;- 

Political  history  of  the  war  with  the  Turks  ;  the  Swedish  war ;  the 
\^  attitude  of  Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia,  and  of  England  under  Pitt; 
^^'  the  ' '  Russian  Armament ' '  ;  change  in  the  position  of  affairs  caused  by 
the  deatK^f  Joseph  II.  and  the  accession  of  Leopold  II.  (1790)  ;  Cath- 
erine made  peace  with  the  Turks  in  order  to  have  her  bands  frpe  to  deal 
with  Poland.     ->    v^-^  V   -- ^Av--   ^^  7.^^^^^:'^^(^'^.>x.-^ 

Importance  of  Catherine's  foreign  policy  in  maintaining  her  position 
in  Russia  ;  she  brought  Russia  forward  more  prominently  as  a  Euro- 
pean power  ;  changing  phases  of  the  Eastern  question. 


Maria   Theresa.  135 

Catherine's  claim  to  be  considered  one  of  the  typical  enlightened  des- 
pots of  the  i8th  century  ;  her  difficulties  and  advantages. 

Authorities :  For  short  accounts  of  the  reign  of  Catherine  s^^Morfill,  Story  of 
Russia,  and  Rambaud,  Histoire  de  la  Russie,  translated  by  Lang ;  and,  for  a  lively 
account  of  her  personality  and  life,  IValiszewski,  Le  roman  d'une  iraperatrice,  and 
Autour  d'un  trone.  A  good  small  book  in  English  is  Spalding;  Suv6roflF. 
Among  secondary  works  should  be  noticed,  in  addition  to  those  cited  under 
Lecture  41,  Bruckner^  Katharina  die  Zweite  ;  Bilbassoff,  Geschichte  Katharina 
II.,  and  Herrmann,  Geschichte  des  russischen  Staates;  also  D'  Aragon,  Le  Prince 
Charles  de  Nassau-Siegen  (1784-89).  Of  primary  author itieSy  Sigur,  Md- 
moires  ;  Malmcsbiiry,  Diaries  and  Correspondence  ;  Ameth,  Joseph  II.  und  Kath- 
arina von  Russland :  ihr  Briefwechsel ;  Catherine^  Correspondance  avec  Grimm, 
are  most  accessible  ;  Beer,  Die  oiientalische  Politik  CBsterreichs  seit  1774,  analyzes 
the  policy  of  Austria  during  the  latter  part  of  Catherine's  reign,  and  the  Turkish 
side  can  be  read  in  Von  Hammer,  Histoire  de  I'empire  ottoman,  and  Zinkeisen^ 
Geschichte  des  osmanischen  Reichs.  The  documents  relating  to  the  reign  of 
Catherine,  published  in  the  Sbornik,  are  numerous  and  important,  and  a  full  bibli- 
ography of  works  on  the  period  is  contained  in  Bilbassoff^  Katharina  II.,  Kaiserin 
vou  Russland,  im  Urtheile  der  Weltliteratur,  2  vols. 


LECTURE  47.  -^^^  ao 

THE  EMPEROR  JOSEPH  IL 

The  administration  of  the  Austrian  dominions  under  Maria  Theresa : 
her  maintenance  and  even  encouragement  of  local  liberties  and  local 
self-government  so  long  as  they  did  not  interfere  with  the  ascendancy 
of  4:he  Catholic  Church  ;  for  this  reason  the  Catholic  Netherlands  and 
the  Milanese  were  given  greater  independence  than  Bohemia,  where 
Czech  ideas  were  identified  with  Protestantism;  contentment  of  the  scat- 
tered provinces  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  under  the  rule  of  Maria 
Theresa  ;  personal  admiration  and  enthusiasm  felt  for  her  character ; 
attempt  to  substitute  dynastic  for  national  loyalty.  f 

The  conservatism  of  Maria  Theresa  in  administration  :  progress  of 
centralization  ;  her  husband,  the  Emperor  Francis,  aided  by  Kinsky, 
Chotek  and  Haugwitz,  regulated  the  finances;  abolition  of  exemptions 


136  Ma  via    Theresa . 

from  taxation;  Kaunitz  managed  foreign  affairs;  organization  and  en- 
couragement of  education;  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  serfs 
on  the  royal  domain;  attempt  made  to  codify  the  laws;  encouragement 
of  foreign  commerce;  revival  of  the  Ostend  Company  with  Trieste  for 
its  headquarters  (1759). 

Foreign  policy  of  Maria  Theresa:  her  hatred  of  Frederick  the  Great; 
the  Austro- French  alliance ;  its  results  for  Austria;  her  share  in  the 
partition  of  Poland;  her  Italian  policy;  she  made  use  of  her  family  to 
support  Austrian  influence  abroad;  thus  her  second  son,  lyCOpold,  be- 
came Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany;  the  third,  Ferdinand,  Governor-General 
of  lyombardy  and  by  marriage  heir  to  the  duchy  of  Modena;  the  fourth, 
Maximilian  Elector- Archbishop  of  Cologne;  while  of  her  daughters 
Maria  Carolina  married  Ferdinand  IV.,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily; 
Maria  Amelia,  Don  Ferdinand  IV.,  Duke  of  Parma;  Marie  Antoinette, 
Louis  XVI.  of  France  ;  and  Maria  Christina,  Albert,  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Teschen,  third  son  of  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  and  Poland,  through 
whom  she  governed  the  Austrian  Netherlands.     (See  Appendix  VII.) 

On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  (18  Aug.,  1765)  his  eldest 
son,  Joseph  II.,  was  elected  Emperor,  while  his  second  son,  the  Arch- 
duke Leopold,  succeeded  him  as  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany. 

Character  and  training  of  Joseph  II. :  for  fifteen  years  he  held  the  posi- 
tion of  Emperor  without  being  ruler  of  the  Austrian  dominions  ;  diffi- 
culties of  this  position  ;  his  endeavors  to  make  the  power  of  the 
Emperor  more  of  a  reality  ;  his  interference  in  foreign  affairs  ;  his 
admiration  for  Frederick  the  Great  followed  by  a  still  greater  admira- 
tion for  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine  ;  his  share  in  the  first  partition  of  Po- 
land and  in  the  War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession. 

Death  of  Maria  Theresa  (29  Nov.,  1780)  and  accession  of  Joseph  II. 
to  the  Austrian  dominions. 

The  Emperor  Joseph  II.  in  many  wnys  the  most  typical  of  the  en- 
lightened  despots  ;  his  personality  ;  his  ardent  desire  to  improve  the 
condition  of  his  people  ;  the  three  vices  which  led  to  the  failure  of  his 
schemes  for  reform  :  (i)  his  desire  to  do  every  thing  yi7r  the  people  and 
not  by  the  people  ;  (2)  his  wish  to  weld  the  Austrian  dominions  into  a 
homogeneous  realm  like  France,  or  an  administrative  entity  like  Prussia 
and  Russia  ;  (3)  the  rapidity  with  which  he  forced  his  reforms  on  the 
people  without  any  preparation. 


Joseph    II.  IT,'] 

Joseph  II. 's  national  reforms  :  his  attempts  to  unify  and  centralize 
the  administration  ;  he  made  German  the  official  language  in  the  home 
dominions  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  ;  he  endeavored  to  destroy  all  local 
franchises  and  to  establish  the  same  system  throughout  his  dominions ; 
his  efforts  for  administrative  and  judicial  unity  and  regularity  ;  he 
divided  his  dominions  into  thirteen  governments,  subdivided  into  cir- 
cles ;  in  each  government  he  established  a  court  of  justice  with  two 
chambers,  one  for  the  nobility  and  one  for  the  bourgeoisie ;  in  each 
circle  there  was  appointed  an  official  to  execute  justice  and  protect  the 
peasants. 

Joseph  II. 's  religious  reforms  :  he  issued  an  edict  of  toleration,  per- 
mitting freedom  of  thought  and  worship  (1781)  ;  the  visitjof  Pope  Pius 
VI.  to  Vienna  (1782)  ;   Joseph  II.  suppressed  numerous  convents  and 


religioiis^rders,  and  endeavored  to  reform  the  administration  of  the 
Church  ;  he  freed  the  Jews  from  their  disabilities  and  permitted  them  to 
enter  the  army  ;  he  endeavored  to  make  education  secular  and  to  take 
it  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Church.     1  *"  'ru^  ^  2.  *-v-t.  ^      i  «-trv«  >v^v>^  ^ 

Joseph  II. 's  attack  upon  infringements  of  personal  liberty  :  he  abol- 
ished serfdom  in  Bohemia  (1781),  in  Carinthia,  Carniola  and  the  Breis- 
gau  (1782),  and  in  Hungary  (22  Aug.,  1785),  and  inaugurated  a  system 
for  removing  feudal  burdens  and  forced  labor  ;  he  abolished  all  guilds  — 
and  corporations  interfering  with  freedom  of  labor. 

Joseph  II. 's  efforts  to  improve  the  intellectual  condition  of  his  peo- 
ple :  he  established  a  system  of  primary  education  and  freed  the  press 
from  the  censorship  (178 1). 

Joseph  II. 's  encouragement  of  public  works  and  improvement  of 
means  of  communication."    T  c-v>.     y  •-— ^^ '*-'*-~^— 

Joseph  II. 's  encouragement  of  trade  and  commerce  :  his  endeavors  to 
obtain  from  the  Dutch  the  freedom  of  the  River  Scheldt. 

Joseph  II.'s  fiscal  reforms  :  his  endeavors  to  introduce  the  physiocratic 
principles  of  taxation.  ^  lAA    vx*>^b^v>v^6^W* 


The  result  of  Joseph  11.^ reforms  was  to  rouse  discontent  and  even 
rebellion  throughout  his  dominions  ;  che  Hungarian  magnates  were  dis- 
gusted at  his  freeing  the  serfs  and  all  the  Magyars  at  his  attempts  at 
Germanization  ;  the  Czechs  in  Bohemia  Avere  apprehensive  that  his  re- 
forms would  crush  them  further  ;  the  Tyrolese  were  in  a  ferment  at  his 


138  Joseph  II. 

measures  against  the  Church,  and  the  Belgians  were  forced  into  open 
rebellion,  both  by  his  interference  with  their  local  government  and  by 
his  measures  against  the  Catholic  Church. 

In  spite  of  the  seething  discontent  in  his  own  doinmions,  Joseph  II. 
pursued  an  active  German  and  foreign  policy. 

The  German  policy  of  Joseph  II.:  he  endeavored  to  make  the  Em- 
pire a  reality;  fears  of  the  German  princes  at  this  action  ;  his  attempt 
to  create  a  German  Church  practically  independent  of  the  Papacy;  the 
suspicion  created  that  his  German  policy  was  to  promote  only  the 
power  of  Austria  heightened  by  his  proposal  to  exchange  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  for  Bavaria  ;  this  scheme  thwarted  b}^  the  formation  of  the 
Fiirstenbund  by  Frederick  the  Great  (1785). 

Joseph  II's  Dutch  policy:  he  endeavored,  while  the  Protestant  Neth- 
erlands were  torn  by  the  struggle  between  the  Stadtholder  and  the 
**  Patriots,"  to  induce  the  Dutch  to  give  up  the  barrier  fortresses  and 
to  free  the  Scheldt  to  commerce  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  (10 
Nov.,  1785)  the  barrier  fortresses,  which  Joseph  had  seized  in  1781-82, 
were  confirmed  to  him  by  the  mediation  of  France,  but  the  closing  of  the 
Scheldt  was  maintained  ;  effect  of  Joseph  II. 's  Dutch  policy  on  England  ; 
it  led  to  the  hearty  support  of  the  House  of  Orange  and  indirectly  to 
the  formation  of  the  Triple  Alliance  between  England,  Prussia  and  the 
United  Provinces  (1788). 

Joseph  II. 's  Russian  policy:  his  admiration  for  the  Tsaritsa  Cath- 
erine led  him  to  engage,  while  bis  dominions  were  in  almost  open  in- 
surrection, in  war_with_the_Turks.      fl^^M^    S*"^""    ^^^'^^  '"cft-^^wUt 

Position  of  the  Eastern  Question  during  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.: 
attitude  of  the  Triple  Alliance   towards  the  schemes  of  Joseph  and 


/. , ..--..--.- 

>|  /  Catherine.  »r^^^^ 

V  /       Importance  of  the  reisrn  of  Joseph  II.'T  liis  activi 


i 


Importance  of  the  reign  of  Joseph  Wr.  his  activity  and  endeavor  10 
promote  internal  reforms  contrasted  with  the  attitude  taken  in  France 
by  his  brother-in-law,  Louis  XVI.  -  -v^    ^^^"^i^^^^jT^    -  tn.  A.,   n>-^.  -'^rrar^^ 

Authorities:  The  best  small  bdoks'in  English  are  Bright,  Maria  Theresa, 
and  Bright,  Joseph  II.  Among  secondary  works  on  the  period  are  A.  IVo/f  and 
Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst,  CE'^terreich  unter  Maria  Theresia,  Joseph  II.  und  Leopold 
II.,  and  Beidtel,  Geschichte  der  oesterreichischeu  Staatsverwaltung,  vol.  i,  1740- 
92.    On  the  policy  and  government  of  Maria  Theresa  see  the  books  cited  under  Lee- 


Joseph  II.  139 

ture  37,  especially  Ameth,  Geschichte  Maria  Theresias,  10  vols ;  A.  Wolf,  CEster- 
reich  unter  Maria  Theresia,  with  Plot,  Le  regne  de  Marie  Th^rese  dans  les  Pays-Baa 
autrichiens  ;  A/eyneri,  Kaiser  Franz.  I.,  and  the  invaluable  collections  of  letters  con- 
tained in  Ameth,  Maria  Theresia  und  Joseph  II.:  Ihre  Correspondenz  sammt  Bricfen 
Joseph's  an  seiuem  Bruder  Leopold,  3  vols,  and  Briefe  der  Kaiserin  MariaTheresia  an 
ihre  Kinder  und  Freunde,  and  in  Arneth  and  Geffroy,  Correspondance  secrete  entre 
Marie  Th^rese  et  le  Comte  de  Mercy-Argenteau  avec  les  lettres  de  Marie  Thdr^se 
et  de  Marie  Antoinette.  For  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.  see  Huber,  Geschichte  Josephs 
II.;  Gross-Hoffinger,  Lebens  und  Regierungsgeschichte  Josephs  II.;  Paganel,  His- 
toire  de  Joseph  II.;  Von  Hock  and  Bidennatm,  Der  CEsterreichische  Staatsrath 
(1760-1848);  G.  Wolf,  CEsterreich  und  Preussen,  1 780-1 790,  Das  Unter richtswesen 
in  CEsterreich  unter  Josef  II.,  and  Josefiua  ;  Ranisfiorn,  Kaiser  Joseph  II.  und 
seine  Zeit ;  Meynert,  Kaiser  Joseph  II.  ;  IVendritisky,  Kaiser  Josef  II.  ;  Jdger, 
Kaiser  Joseph  II.  und  Leopold  II.,  Reform  und  Gegenreform ;  Ritter,  Kaiser 
Joseph  II.  und  seine  kirchlichen  Reformen  ;  Zieglauer  von  Blumenthal,  Die 
politische  Reforrabcwegung  in  Siebenburgen  zur  Zeit  Josefs  II.  und  Leopolds 
IL;  ^ra«^,  Das  Toleranz-Patent  Kaiser  Joseph  II. ;  Gachard,  Etudes  sur  I'histoire 
des  Pays-Bas,  vols,  ii,  iii  ;  Hubert,  De  Charles-Quint  a  Joseph  IJ.,  ^tude  sur  la 
condition  des  Protestants  en  Belgique,  ^dit  de  tolerance  de  1781  ;  Schlitier, 
Die  Reise  des  Papstes  Pius  VI.  nach  Wien  (Pontes  rerum  Austriacarum,  vol. 
xlvii);  Beer,  Die  orieutalische  Politik  CEsterreichs  seit  1774;  Lindtier,  Die  Auf- 
hebung  der  Kloster  in  Deutsch-Tirol,  1782-87;  A.  Wolf,  Die  Aufhebung  der 
Kloster  in  Inner-oestcrreich,  1782-90;  Lustkandl,  Die  Josephinischen  Ideen  und 
ihr  Erfolg,  and  Brunn^r,  Joseph  II. :  Charakteristik  seines  Lebens,  seiner  Regierung, 
und  seiner  Kirchen reform.  For  this  reign  there  are  also  several  invaluable  collec- 
tions of  letters  :  Arneth,  Joseph  II.  und  Leopold  von  Toscana :  Ihr  Briefwechsel 
von  1781-90;  Joseph  II.  und  Katharina  von  Russland  :  Ihr  Briefwechsel;  and 
Marie  Antoinette,  Joseph  II.  und  Leopold  II.:  Ihr  Briefwechsel;  Arneth  and 
Flammermont,  Correspondance  secrete  du  Comte  de  Mercy-Argenteau  avec  I'em- 
pereur  Joseph  II.  et  le  prince  de  Kaunitz ;  Beer,  Joseph  II.,  Leopold  II.  und 
Kaunitz ;  Ihr  Briefwechsel,  and  Brunner,  Correspondances  intimes  de  I'cmpereur 
Joseph  II.  avec  le  comte  de  Cobenzl  et  le  prince  de  Kaunitz. 


LECTURE  48. 


THE  NORTHERN  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  TO  1789. 

Condition  of  the  Protestant  Netherlands  during  the  i8th  century  : 
their  commercial  and  financial  prosperity,  but  decline  of  their  naval  and 


140  The  Dutch  Revolutmi  {lySd-Sy). 

military  power  ;  the  two  parties — the  Republican  burghers  and  the  sup- 
porters of  the  House  of  Orange ;  the  French  invasion  caused  William 
IV.  of  Orange  to  be  declared  hereditary  Stadtholder  (1747)  ;  William 
IV.,  and,  after  his  death  (i 751),  his  widow,  Anne  of  England,  daugh- 
ter of  George  II.,  to  1759,  and  lyouis  Ernest  of  Brunswick  to  1766, 
pursued  a  policy  of  close  alliance  with  England,  but  remained  neutral 

/uring  the  Seven  Years'  War. 
William  V.  (b.  1748)  undertook  the  Stadtholderate  in  1766,  but  Eouis 
of  Brunswick  remained  his  chief  adviser;  growth  of  the  "  Patriot "  party, 
which  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  French  writers,  and  was  opposed  to 
the  semi-royal  authority 'of  the  Stadtholder  and  the  oligarchical  power 
of  the  burghers  ;  this  party,  especially  in  Holland,  desired  to  help  the 
insurgents  in  America,  while  commercial  interests  caused  the  adhesion 
of  the  Dutch  to  the  principles  of  the  Armed  Neutrality ;  their  conduct 
caused  England  to  declare  war  (1780)  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  the 
Dutch  ceded  Negapatam,  their  chief  factory  in  India,  to  England.      \ 

•The  Dutch  Revolution  :  William  V.  accused  of  favoring  the  English 
during  the  war  ;  Louis  of  Brunswick  forced  to  resign  (1784)  ;  riots  in 
the  cities  ;  William  V.  driven  from  the  Hague  (1785)  ;  the  Dutch  "  Pa- 
triots "  appealed  for  help  to  France  ;  excitement  in  the  cities ;  insurrec- 
tion of  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Utrecht  against  the  Stadtholder 
(1786-87)  ;  Vergennes,  and  after  him  Montmorin,  afraid  to  send  regular 
troops  for  fear  of  renewing  the  war  with  England,  but  permitted  the 
raising  of  a  body  of  French  volunteers,  the  Legion  of  Maillebois. 
/  Pitt  resolved  to  restore  the  power  of  the  Stadtholder  :  Wilhelmina, 
Princess  of  Orange,  arrested  by  the  "  Patriots  "  (28  June,  1787)  ;  Har- 
ris, afterwards  Lord  Malmesbury  (b.  1746,  d.  1820),  induced  Frederick 
William  II.  of  Prussia  to  restore  his  brother-in-law,  William  V.  ;  a 
Prussian  army  under  Charles  William  Ferdinand.  Duke  of  Brunswick 
(b.  1735,  d.  1806)  occupied  Amsterdam  (10  Sept.,  1787)  ;  the  "  Patriot  " 
leaders  exiled  ;  Van  de  Spiegel  made  Grand  Pensionary  ;  Malmesbury 
concluded  the  Triple  Alliance  between  England,  Prussia  and  the  United  / 
Provinces  (15  April,  1788).  ' 

History' of  Denmark  and  Norway  during  the  i8th  century  :  growth 
of  commercial  prosperity,  and  literary  and  scientific  development, under 
the  autocracy  of  enlightened  kings  and  ministers  ;   struggle  between 


Denmark  in  the  i8th  Century,  14I 

Germanizing  and  national  ten<dencijSj  steady  improvement  in  internal 
administration  ;  foreign  policy  based  on  a  close_alliance  witli_iyi^land  ; 
close  relationship  between  the  royal  familiesof  England  and  Denmark  '; 
territorial  policy  aimed  at  the  absorption  of  Holstein^ 

Reign  of  Christian  VI.  u 730-46)  :  his  Puritanism;  Germanizing 
policy  of  the  Queen,  Sophia  Magdalen  of  Baireuth  ;  his  encouragement 
of  commerce  and  of  the  navy  ;  the  Danish  East  India  Company  ;  chance 
of  unTUng  Denmark  with  Sweden  lost  in  1743  by  the  election  of  Adol- 
phus  Frederick  of  Holstein  to  be  heir  to  the  throne  of  Sweden,  instead 
of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Denmark. 

Reign  of  Frederick  V.  (1746-66)  :  reaction  from  Germanism  and 
Puritanism  ;  his  two  wives,  I^ouisa  of  England  and  Juliana  of  Bruns- 
wick x^  ministry  of  John  BernstorfF  (1751-70)  ;  danger  threatened  to 
Danish  independence  by  the  accession  of  Peter  of  Holstein  to  the  throne 
of  Russia  as  Peter  III.  in  1762;  threats  of  the  Tsar  to  destroy  Den- 
mark ;  Catherine,  on  usurping  the  throne  of  Russia,  made  peace  with 
Denmark  and  allowed  Holstein  to  be  exchan^:£d_ibr  the  bishopric  of 
Liib£ck,and  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  which  were  granted  to  the  House 
of  Holstein- Gottorp  (1767). 

Reign  of  Christian  VII.  (i 766-1808)  :  Struens€£,(b.  1737)  made  chief 
minister  (1770)  ;  his  character  ;  his  philosophical  ideas  and  use  of  his 
power  ;  he  represented  the  German,  phjlosophicaL  and  sweeping  reform 
party  ;  he  suppressed  the  censorship  of  the  press,  abolished  the  Council 
of  State,  reorganized  the  army,  established  religious  toleration,  simpli- 
fied the  collection  of  the  revenue,  encouraged  education  and  reformed 
the  law  and  the  judicial  administration  ;  Struensee  accused  of  being  too 
intimate  with  the  Queen,  Caroline  Matilda,  sister  of  George  III  of 
England  ;  a  conspiracy  formed  against  him  ;  he  was  arrested  (17  Jan., 
1772)  and  executed  r28  April,  1772). 

Andrew  Bernstorff  (b.  1735,  d.  1797),  chief  minister  :  in  foreign  affairs 
he  maintained  the  English  alliance  ;  in  internal  affairs  he  carried  out 
gradual  reforms  ;  insanity  of  the  King  ;  the  Queen  Dowager  forced 
"Sernstorff  to  resign  (1780),  and  called  Guldberg  to  office  ;  Denmark 
joined  the  Armed  Neutrality  (1780)  ;  the  Crowm  Prince  Frederick  seized 
the  government  (1784)  and  recalled  Bernstorff  to  office  ;  the  reforms  of 
Bernstorff;    he  prohibited  the  negro  slave  trade  and  (20  June,  1788) 


rv 


142  Sweden  in  the  i8th  Ceyitury. 

I  finally  abolished  serfdom  in  Denmark  ;  the  Jews  allowed  the  rights  of 
citizens ;  by  an  arrangement  with  Russia,  Denmark  attacked  Sweden 
in  1788,  but  peace  was  made  the  same  year  by  the  intervention  of  the 
Triple  Alliance. 

Sweden  in  the  i8th  century  :  her  losses  by  the  treaties  which  con- 
cluded the  Northern  War,  and  especially  by  the  Treaty  of  Nystadt 
(1721),  reduced  her  to  a  second-rate  power;  the  election  of  Ulrica 
Eleanor,  younger  sister  of  Charles  XII.,  to  the  throne  of  Sweden 
(1719),  instead  of  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  transferred  all  power  to  / 
the  Senate,  composed  of  the  nobles,  which  was  answerable  to  the  Es-  I 
tates,  or  Diet ;  powerlessness  of  the  Swedish  monarchy  ;  concentration 
of  executive,  legislative  and  judicial  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  no- 
bles ;  their  poverty,  rapacity  and  want  of  patriotism ;  rivalry  of  two 
parties — the  "  Hats,"  relying  on  France,  bribed  by  France,  looking  for 
the  reconquest  of  Finland  and  St^ettin,  and  desirous  of  keeping  in  touch 
J  with  Western  Europe,  and  the  *'  Caps,''  bribed  by  Russia^and  hoping 
by  Russian  help  to  conquer  Denmark  and  Pomerania.  ,      -  •;  '^^-^^V 

Reign  of  Ulrica  Eleanor  (17 19-41)  and  of  her  husband  i^rederick  of 
Hesse-Cassel,  Frederick  I.  of  Sweden  (1720-51):  rule  of  the  "Caps" 
(1721-38);  administration  of  Count  Arvid  Horn  ;|the  "  Hats  "  obtained 
the  mastery  and  declared  war  against  Russia  at  the  request  of  France 
(4  Aug.,  1741);  the  Swedes  defeated  at  Wilmanstrand  (3  Sept.,  1741) 
and  Helsingfors  (1742^  by  the  Treaty  of  Abo  with  Russia  (23  Jan., 
1743)  a  small  cession  of  territory  was  made  to  Russia,  and  Adolphus 
Frederick  of  Holstein,  Bishop  of  Liibeck,  was  elected  heir  to  the  Swed- 
ish throne  at  the  request  of  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth,  in  the  place  of  his 
cousin,  Peter  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  the  heir  to  the  Russian  throne  ;  de- 
feat of  the  plan  to  choose  the  Crown  Prince  of  Denmark  and  thus 
to  unite  the  Scandinavian  countries  ;  personality  of  Frederick  I. ;  his 
code  of  civil  law  (1736);  his  patronage  of  Linnaeus  and  foundation  of 
the  Academy  of  Stockholm. 

Reign  of  Adolphus  Frederick  (i  751-71);  he  was  married  to  Louisa 
Ulrica,  sister  of  Frederick  the"  Great  ;  the  "Hats"  remained  in  power 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  reign  ;  attempts  of  the  King,  spurred  on 
by  the  Queen,  to  restore  the  royal  authority  ;  execution  of  Horn  and 
Brahe  (1756);  at  the  demand  of  France  and  Russia,  the  Swedes  took 


Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden.  143 

part  in  the  Seven  Years  War  and  attacked  Prussia  ;  their  part  in  the 
war ;  after  the  death  of  the  Tsaritsa  Elizabeth,  Adolphus  Frederick 
made  peace  with  Frederick  the  Great  at  Hamburg  (20  May,  1762;;  the 
"  Caps  "  recovered  power  (1765);  at  the  instigation  of  his  son,  Gustavus, 
the  King  made  a  vain  attempt  to  overthrow  the  power  of  the  nobles 
and  the  Senate  by  an  appeal  to  the  Estates  of  Sweden  (1769). 

Schemes  of  Russia,  Prussia  and  Denmark  for  the  partition  of  Sweden 
(1764,  1766,  1769). 

Reign  of  Gustavus  III.  (1771-92):  his  character  and  education  ;  his 
travels ;  his  attachment  to  France  ;  his  adoption  of  the  theory  of  en- 
lightened_despotism  ;  supported  by  Vergennes,  the  French  ambassador 
to  Sweden,  by  a  coup  d'etat  (19  Aug.,  1772)  he  destroyed^^the  power  of 
the  Senate  and  assumed  all  executive^authoritv.  leaving  the  control  of 
taxation  to  the  Estates ;  his  internal  policy;  sweeping  refor^s^  he 
\  \  abolished  torture^  encouraged  commerce,  improved  the  administration 
^  and  suppressed  the  censorship  of  the  press  ;  his  difficulties  with  the 
Estates  ;  his  autocratic  actions. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Gustavus  III. :  he  joined  the  Armed  Neutrality 
.^^(j78o);^V^o  '^Tn'  liatToiial  support  he  attacked  Russia  (1788);  misbe- 
iiavior  of  the  Swedish  army  in  Finland  ;  the  malcontents  led  by  the 
king's  brother,  Charles,  Duke  of  Sudermania  ;  Sweden  attacked  by 
Denmark  (1788);  coup  d'etat  of  178Q  (20  Feb.);  Gustavus  declared  a 
new  fundamental  law  of  Sweden,  that  j"  the_King_shall  administer  the 
I  a£Eairs  of  State  as_he_thitiks  best  f ;  victory  won  by  the  Swedish  navy 
at  Svenska  Sound  (9  July,  1790);  Treaty  of  Ver^a  signed  with  Russia 
(14  Aug.,  1790)  establishing  the  status  quo  ante  bellum. 

Claims  of  Gustavus  III.  to  be  considered  a  typical  enlightened  despot 

of  the  i8th  century.       \^:<t,,^^^,^\^  -  ■rS^-\^  ^  a^l%U 

Authorities :  For  the  Dutch  Revolution  see  Ellis,  History  of  the  Late  Revolu- 
tion in  the  Dutch  Republic  ;  Caillard^  Memoire  sur  la  Revolution  de  Hollande,  pub- 
lished \xi  Stgur^  Decade  Historique,  vol.  iii ;  De  Witt,  Une  invasion  prussicnne 
en  Hollande  en  1787 ;  Bohtlingk,  Die  hollandische  Revolution  1787  und  der 
deutsche  Furstenbund  ;  Schenk,  Wilhelm  der  Funfte ;  Nijhoff,  De  Hertog  van 
Brunswijk  {i'j$o-^^)\Colenbrdnder,  De Patriottentijd  ( 1776-1786):  lyau,  Geschichte 
des  preussischen  Feldzugs  in  der  Provinz  Holland  im  Jahre  1787,  and  as  primary 
authorities,  Mahnesbury,  Diaries  and  Correspondence;  IVilliam  V.,  Brieven 
aan  Baron  van   Lijnden  van   Blitterswijk,  ed.  De  Bas ;  Hogendorp,  Brieven  en 


144  ^^^^  Mediterraiiean  in  the  i8th  Centicry. 

Gedenkschrifteu  ;  Van  de  Spiegel,  Zijne  Tijdgenooten,  ed.  Vreede,  vols,  i-iii,  and 
Dejonge,  Documents  politiques  et  diplomatiques  sur  les  revolutions  de  1787  et  1795 
dans  la  republique  des  Provinces-Unies.  For  Danish  history  see  Allen,  Histoire 
de  Danemark  ;  Vedel,  Correspondance  ministerielle  du  comte  J.  H.  E.  BernstorflF, 
1751-70  ;  Correspondance  entre  Eernstorff  et  Choiseul,  1758-66  ;  Host,  Graf  Struen- 
see  und  sein  Ministerium  ;  Falkenskjold,  Memoires  a  I'epoque  du  ministere  et  de  la 
catastrophe  du  comte  de  Struensee  ;  Lagreze,  La  reine  Caroline  Mathilde  et  le 
comte  Struensee ;  Wraxall,  Life  and  Times  of  Caroline  Matilda,  Queen  of  Den- 
mark, and  Wiltich,  Struensee.  For  Swedish  history  see  Malmstrom,  Sveriges 
politiska  historia  (1718-1772);  Heidenstam,  Una  soeur  du  grand  Frederic,  Louise 
Ulrique,  reine  de  Suede  ;  Bain,  Gustavus  III.  and  his  Contemporaries ;  Gejfroy, 
Gustave  III.  et  la  cotir  de  France ;  Bonneville  de  Marsangy,  Le  comte  de  Ver- 
gennes,  son  ambassade  en  Suede  (1771-74);  Posselt,  Geschichte  Gustavs  III.,  and 
Sheridan,  History  of  the  Late  Revolution  in  Sweden.  As  a  primary  authority 
see  the  papers  of  Gustavus  III.,  ed.  Geijer. 


LECTURE    49. 


THE  SOUTHERN  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  TO  1789. 

Decreasing  commercial  importance  of  the  Mediterranean  during  the 
18th  centur}^  and  consequent  decreasing  political  importance  of  the 
countries  surrounding  it  :  the  civilization  of  Europe  began  to  center  in 
the  northwest  of  the  continent,  iii  England,  France  and  the  United 
Provinces  ;  causes  of  this  change. 

The  condition  of  the  Mediterranean  in  the  i8th  century  :  ravages  of 
the  Barbary  corsairs  ;  the  trade  of  the  Levant  absorbed  by  the  English  ; 
effect  of  their  occupation  of  Gibraltar  and  Minorca  ;  Venice  monopolized 
the  trade  of  the  Adriatic  ;  government  of  Malta  by  the  Knights  of  Saint 
John  of  the  Hospital. 

Portugal  in  the  i8th  century  :  its  commercial  and  political  depend^ 
ence  on  England  after  the  Methuen  Treaty  (1703)  ;  its  attempts  to  get 
free  from  the  English  alliance  and  to  enter  into  closV relations  with 
Spain  ;  Spain's  desire  to  annex  Portugal ;  internal  government ;  the 
monarchy  dependent  upon  Brazil  for  its  revenue  ;  misgovernment  of 
Brazil ;  disappearance  of  the  Portuguese  power  in  Asia. 


Pombal.  145 

The  reign  of  John  V.  (1706-50):  his  endeavors  to  imitate  Louis  XIV.; 
the  reign  of  Joseph  (1750-77);  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  (i  Nov., 
1755);  the  administration  of  Pombal  (b.  1699,  d.  1782),  one  of  the  en- 
lightened ministers  of  the  i8th  century  ;  his  internal  policy  and  re- 
forms ;  his  belief  in  autocracy  ;  Pombal  took  the  lead  in  the  suppression 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  ;  he  abolished  slavery  in  Portugal  (25  May,  1773), 
but  maintained  negro  slavery  in  Brazil  ;  he  reformed  the  administra- 
tion and  the  judicial  system  ;  he  encouraged  trade  and  manufactures; 
he  promoted  higher  education,  founded  more  than  800  schools,  and  re- 
organized the  University  of  Coimbra  ;  Pombal' s  foreign  policy  ;  he  de- 
sired to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  England  ;  the  Spaniards  invaded  Portugal 
under  the  terms  of  the  Pacte  de  Famille  ;  they  were  defeated  with  the 
assistance  of  England  ;  peace  signed  between  Spain  and  Portugal  (10 
Feb.,  1763);  reign  of  Maria  L  (1777-1816)  and  Pedro  IIL  (1777-86); 
dismissal  of  Pombal  ;  maintenance  of  his  system  ;  Portugal  joined  the 
Armed  Neutrality  (1782; ;  insanity  of  Maria  I.  (1788)  and  assumption 
of  the  government  by  Prince  John  (1792). 

^ain  in  the  i8th  century  :  poverty  and  exhaustion,  material  and 
intellectual,  of  the  country ;  character  of  the  government  of  the  Bour- 
bon kings  of  Spain  ;  the  royal  revenue  derived  from  the  Spanish  col- 
onies in  America  ;  their  misgovernment ;  attempts  made  to  maintain  a 
strong  navy  ;  abandonment  of  commerce. 

The  latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Philip  V.  (1700-46):  the  administra- 
tions of  Patino  (1726-36),  the  successor  of  Ripperda,  and  of  Campillo 
(1741-43);  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  VI.  (1746-59);  the  influence  of  Fari- 
nelli ;  administrations  of  La  Ensenada  (1743-54)  and  of  Wall  (1754-63). 

The  reign  of  Charles  III.,  formerly  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily  (1759- 
88):  Charles  III.  one  of  the  enlightened  despots;  his  efforts  to  improve 
the  condition  of  Spain  ;  his  difficulties  ;  excellence  of  his  ministers ; 
administrative  refornis of  Squillacci  (1759-66);  their  unpopularity;  forced 
from  office  by  a  riot  at  Madrid  ;  Aranda  (b.  1718,  d.  1799)  and  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Jesuits  ;  his  internal  administration  ( 1766-73);  its  spirit 
of  progress  carried  on  by  Florida  Blanca  (1773-92);  their  belief  in  autoc- 
racy and  centralization  ;  O'Reilly  reformed  the  army  and  rebuilt  the 
navy  ;  Campomanes  established  a  national  system  of  education,  and 
with  Jovellanos  reformed  the  judicial  system  and  introduced  the  ideas 


146  Charles  III.  of  Spaiji. 

of  the  political  economists  ;  Cabarrus  founded  the  Bank  of  St.  Charles, 
(1782),  and  established  a  national  system  of  credit ;  revival*of  commerce 
after  throwing  open  to  all  Spanish  ports  trade  with  America  ;  reform  of 
the  currency  ;  encouragement  of  public  works  and  improvement  of  agri- 
culture ;  endeavor  of  Olavide  to  restore  prosperity  in  Andalusia ;  his 
overthrow  by  the  Inquisition  (1776J). 

The  foreign  policy  of  Charles  III. :  its  keynotes — the  recovery  of  Gib- 
raltar and  the  conquest  of  Portugal ;  Spain  attempted  to  achieve  these 
ends  by  the  signature  of  the  Facte  de  Famille  with  France  (15  Aug., 
1761);  Spain  declared  war  against  England  (1762)  and  invaded  Por- 
tugal ;  defeat  of  the  Spaniards,  and  loss  of  Havana  and  Manilla  ;  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  England  and  recovered 
Havana  and  Manilla ;  France  ceded  Louisiana  to  Spain  in  compensa- 
tion for  the  loss  of  Florida ;  Grimaldi,  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  (1763- 
76)  and  Florida  Blanca  (1776-92);  Spain  joined  France  against  Eng- 
land in  the  War  of  American  Independence  ;  the  siege  of  Gibraltar; 
part  played  by  the  Spanish  navy  during  the  war  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles (1783)  Spain  recovered  Minorca  and  Florida;  expeditions  made 
by  Spain  against  the  Barbary  corsairs  (1775,  1785;. 

Death  of  Charles  III.  (14  Dec,  1788);  importance  of  his  reign; 
accession  of  Charles  IV. 

Italy  in  the  i8th  century:  Austrian  influence  practically  supreme; 
the  House  of  Savoy,  which  ruled  in  Sardinia  and  Piedmont,  the  only 
national  dynasty  in  Italy. 

I.  The  Papacy:  Pope  Pius  VI. — Braschi  (1775-99);  his  administra- 
tion; his  endeavor  to  drain  the  Pontine  marshes  ;  foundation  of  the 
Clementine  Museum;  his  difficulties  with  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  the 
Grand  Duke  Leopold  and  Tanucci;  his  visit  to  Vienna  (1782). 

II.  The  Two  Sicilies  :  the  government  of  Don  Carlos,  afterwards 
Charles  III.  of  Spain  (1735-59);  the  administration  of  Xanuccijb.  1698, 
d.  1783),  one  of  the  most  enlightened  ministers  of  his  time;  he  abol- 
ished feudalism  in  Naples;  his  attempt  to  reform  the  laws;  his  encour- 
agement of  art  and  education  ;  his  action  against  the  power  of  the 
Church;  Charles  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Spain  gave  Naples 
and  Sicily  to  his  third  son,  Ferdinand  IV.  (i 759-1 825)  ;  during  the 
minority  of  the  young  king,  Tanucci  remained  in  power ;   he  con- 


Italy  in  the  i8th   Century.  147 

tinued  his  reforms;  he  cooperated  in  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  and 
occupied  Benevento  and  Ponte  Corvo  (1769);    his  struggle  with  the 
Papacy  and  suppression  of  useless  bishoprics  ;   as  a  result  of  his  mar- 
riage (1768)  with  Maria  Carolina,  daughter  of  Maria  Theresa,  the  king 
dismissed  Tanucci  (1776);  supremacy  of  the  Queen  ;  influence  of  Acton 
(b.  1736,  d.  181 1);    backwardness  of  the  island  of  Sicily;    its  "Parlia- 
ment"; failure  of  the  attempted  reforms  of  Domenico  Caracciolo  (1781). 
■'^       III.  Tuscany :  the  administration  of  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold,  second 
^/^j^Qn_o£Maria  Theresa  (1765-90);    his  reforms;   his  code  of  laws;   he 
^    reduced  the  number  of  bishoprics  and  monasteries;   he  improved  the 
material  condition  of  Tuscany;  his  administrative  reforms;   his  judicial 
reforms;  he  adopted  the  economic  ideas  of  the  Physiocrats  and  abol- 
'ished  all  restrictions  on  industry  and   commerce;    his  patronage  of 
higher  education;  he  founded  the  prosperity  of  Leghorn;  he  disbanded 
his   army  ;    the  Grand   Duke   Leopold   the   most  enlightened  of  the 
benevolent  despots. 

IV.  Parma  :  the  reign  of  Don  Philip  (1749-65);  the  administration  of 
Du  Tillot,  Marquis  of  Felino  (b.  1711,  d.  1774);  his  reforms  ;  his  patron- 
age of  higher  education ;  his  action  against  the  monasteries  ;  his  en- 
couragement of  manufactures ;  the  reign  of  Don  Ferdinand  ( 1 765- 1 802) ; 
Du  Tillot's  scheme  of  marrying  him  to  the  heiress  of  Modena  foiled  ; 
Du  Tillot's  struggle  with  the  Papacy  and  suppression  of  the  Jesuits ; 
he  abolished  the  Inquisition  and  reorganized  the  University  of  Parma 
(1768)  ;  Don  Ferdinand  married  Maria  Amelia,  daughter  of  Maria 
Theresa  (1769);  dismissal  of  Du  Tillot  by  the  influence  of  the  Duchess 
(177^);  greatness  of  Du  Tillot ;   "a  great  minister  of  a  little  state  ". 

V.  Modena  :  reign  of  Francis  III.  (1737-80);  he  supported  France 
in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  but  after  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (174.8)  became  Governor- General  of  Lombardy  for  Maria 
Theresa  ;  reign  of  Hercules  III.  (i 780-1 803);  his  avarice  and  unpopu- 
larity ;  his  heiress,  Maria  Beatrice,  married  the  Archduke  Ferdinand, 
third  son  of  Maria  Theresa  (1771). 

VI.  Lombardy  :  the  Milanese  and  Mantua  governed  as  possessions 
of  Austria  by  the  Duke  of  Modena  (1748-80)  and  by  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand  (1780-96);  enlightened  administration  of  Count  Firmian 
(1759-82);  his  reforms  and  encouragement  of  higher  education;  intel- 


148  Italy  in  the  18 th  Century. 

lectual  development  in  Milan  ;  the  great  Lombard  writers  and  men  of 
science,  Beccaria,  Verri,  Spallanzani  and  Volta. 

VII.  Kingdom  of  Sardinia  :  abdication  of  Victor  Amadeus  II.  (1730); 
the  reign  of  Charles  Emmanuel  III.  (1730-73);  he  pursued  the  tradi- 
tional policy  of  the  House  of  Savoy  ;  his  territorial  gains  in  the  War  of 
the  Polish  Succession  and  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  ;  the 
the  reign  of  Victor  Amadeus  III.  (1773-96);  his  close  alliance  with 
France  ;  influenced  by  the  enlightened  spirit  of  the  century  ;  his  build- 
ings at  Nice  ;  improvement  of  his  army  on  the  Prussian  model ;  ab- 
sence of  serfdom  in  Piedmont. 

VIII.  The  Republic  of  Venice  :  its  mastery  of  the  Adriatic  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  Ionian  Islands ;  conservatism  of  its  administration  ; 
Venice,  "  the  holiday  city  of  Europe  ";  splendor  of  its  festivals. 

IX.  The  Republic  of  Genoa  :  its  decline  in  prosperity  during  the  18th 
century  ;  insurrection  in  Corsica  (1729)  ;  Corsica  declared  its  independ- 
ence (1733);  election  of  Theodore,  Baron  von  Neuhof,  as  King  of  Corsica 
(1736);  the  Genoese  requested  the  assistance  of  France;  the  French 
under  Maillebois  conquered  the  Corsicans  (1739);  the  French  evacuated 
Corsica  (1743);  the  second  insurrection  of  the  Corsicans,  headed  by 
Paoli  (b.  1726,  d.  1807),  also  suppressed  by  French  troops  (1753-56); 
third  insurrection  under  Paoli  (1759);  the  Republic  of  Genoa  ceded  Cor- 
sica to  France  (1768);  conquest  of  the  island  by  the  French  (1769). 

X.  The  petty  states  of  Italy :  the  republics  of  Lucca  and  S^an  Marino; 
the  principalities  of  Piombino  and  Monaco. 

The  Turks  during  the  i8th  century  :  steady  decline  of  their  power ; 
the  relations  of  the  Sublime  Porte  with  France  ;  the  wars  of  the  Turks 
with  Austria  and  Russia  closed  by  the  Treaties  of  Passarowitz  (1718), 
Belgrade  (1739),  Kutschuk  Kainardji  (1774),  Sistova  (1790)  and  Jassy 
(1792);  causes  of  the  decay  of  the  Turkish  power  ;  the  dismemberment 
of  the  Turkish  dominions  becomes  one  of  the  two  problems  of  the  East- 
ern question. 

Authorities :  For  Malta,  Boisgelin,  Ancient  and  Modern  Malta.  For  Portu- 
gal, Morse  Stephens,  Story  of  Portugal ;  Oliveira  Martins,  Historia  de  Portugal ; 
Latino  Coelho,  Historia  de  Portugal  desde  os  fins  do  XVII.  Seculo  ate  1814; 
Smith,  Memoirs  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal ;  Moore,  Alberoni,  Ripperda  and  Pom- 
bal ;  with  the  anonymous  Administration  du  Marquis  de  Pombal,  4  vols.,  and  the 


Germany  in  the  i8th  Century,  149 

so-called  M^moires  du  Marquis  de  Pombal,  4  vols.  For  Spain,  Coxe,  Memoirs  of 
the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon  ;  Rosseeuw-Saint-Hilaire,  Histoire 
d'Espagne,  vols.  12,  13  ;  Lafuente,  Storia  general  de  Espana,  vols.  19-21 ;  Ferret 
del  Rio,  Historia  del  reinado  de  Carlos  III.,  4  vols.;  Danvilla  y  Collado,  Reinado 
de  Carlos  III.,  6  vols  ;  Muriel,  Gobierno  de  Sefior  Rey  Don  Carlos  III ;  Rodriguez 
Villa,  El  Marques  de  la  Ensenada  ;  Lavalle,  Don  Pablo  Olavide  ;  Coltneiro,  His- 
toria de  la  Ecouomia  politica  en  Espana  ;  Carnpomaftes,  Obras  ;  Jovellanos,  Obras ; 
with  the  chapters  on  Spain  in  Schlosser,  History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  trans- 
lated by  Davison.  For  Italy,  Botta,  Histoire  d'ltalie  depuis  1789  a  1814;  Cantu, 
Histoire  des  Italiens  ;  Brosch^  Geschichte  des  Kirchenstaats ;  Orsi,  Storia  degli 
ultimi  quattro  secoli  della  Chiesa ;  Ariaud,  Vie  du  pape  Pie  VI. ;  Collftla,  Storia 
del  Reame  di  Napoli  dal  1734  sino  al  1825  ;  Lauria,  Di  Bernardo  Tanucci  e  dei  suoi 
tempi ;  Gagni^re,  La  reine  Marie  Caroline  de  Naples  ;  Hel/ert,  Maria  Karolina, 
Konigin  von  Neapel ;  Zobi,  Storia  civile  della  Toscana  dal  1737  al  1848,  6  vols.; 
Poller,  Vie  et  m^moires  de  Scipion  de  Ricci,  eveque  de  Pistoie,  4  vols. ;  Nisard, 
Du  Tillot ;  Cantii,  L' abate  Parini  e  la  Lombardia  nel  secolo  passato ;  Bianchi, 
Storia  della  Monarchia  Piemontese,  1773-1861 ;  Belgiojoso,  Histoire  de  la  maison 
de  Savoie  ;  Costa-Beauregard,  M^moires  historiques  sur  la  maison  royale  de  Savoie; 
Carutli,  Storia  del  regno  di  Carlo  Emanuele  III.;  Daru,  Histoire  de  la  rdpub- 
lique  de  Venise ;  Jacobi,  Histoire  g^n^rale  de  la  Corse ;  Renucci,  Storia  di 
Corsica  ;  Gregorovius,  Corsica ;  Arrighi,  Histoire  de  Pascal  Paoli ;  and  Boswell, 
Account  of  Corsica  and  Memoirs  of  Paoli.  For  the  Turks,  Creasy,  History  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks  ;  Von  Hammer,  Histoire  de  I'empire  ottoman  ;  Zinkeisen,  Ges- 
chichte des  osmanischen  Reichs  ;  with  Saint-Priest,  M^moires  sur  I'ambassade 
fran^aise  en  Turquie  ;  Bonnac,  M^moire  historique  sur  I'ambassade  de  France  a 
Constantinople,  ed.  Schefer  (with  Bonnac's  correspondence,  1716-24);  Vandal, 
Une  ambassade  fran9aise  en  Orient  sous  Louis  XV.,  la  mission  du  marquis  de 
Villeneuve  (1728-41);  Bonneville  de  Marsangy,  Le  chevalier  de  Vergennes,  son 
ambassade  a  Constantinople  (1755-69);  Pingaud,  Choiseul-Gouffier  (1784-92);  and 
Baron  de  Toll,  Memoirs  concerning  the  War  of  Turkey  with  Russia. 


LECTURE    50. 


GERMANY  TO   1789. 

The  condition  of  Germany  in  the  18th  century  :  the  establishment  of 
the  independence  of  the  states  of  the  Empire  by  the  Treaties  of  West- 
phalia had  destroyed  the  sense  of  German  nationality  ;  looseness  of  the 
bonds  which  held  the  Empire  together. 


150  The  Empire  in  the  i8th  Century, 

History  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  the  1 8th  century  :  conditions 
produced  during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession ;  the  weakness  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  VII.;  innovation  at  the  election  of  1745,  when  the 
envoy  of  Maria  Theresa,  as  Queen  of  Bohemia,  was  permitted  to  vote ; 
war  of  execution  declared  against  Frederick  the  Great  (1756),  under 
which  an  army  of  imperial  troops  was  defeated  with  the  French  at  Ross- 
bach,  but  when  it  was  proposed  to  place  Frederick  under  the  ban  of  the 
Empire,  in  1758,  the  Protestant  princes  threatened  to  secede  ;  election  of 
Joseph  II.  as  King  of  the  Romans  (1764);  he  became  Emperor  (1765). 

Impotence  of  the  Diet  of  the  Empire,  which  since  1663  had  remained 
in  perpetual  session  and  consisted  only  of  envoys  :  in  1788  only  four- 
teen princes  of  the  Empire  and  eight  free  cities  maintained  representa- 
tives at  Ratisbon  ;  the  Imperial  Diet  had  thus  ceased  to  be  an  operative 
bond  of  federal  union. 

The  judicial  authority  of  the  Empire:  scandalous  inefficiency  of  the 
Imperial  Tribunal  at  Wetzlar;  Joseph  II.  commenced  a  visitation  of  the 
Tribunal  (1767-76),  but  effected  no  valid  reform;  greater  vigor  of  the 
Aulic  Council,  especially  during  the  reign  of  Joseph  II.;  while  the 
Imperial  Tribunal  neglected  appeals  laid  before  it,  the  Aulic  Council 
dealt  more  promptly  than  before  with  cases  against  princes  for  misuse 
of  power. 

Utter  inadequacy  of  the  executive  power  of  the  Empire:  mismanage- 
ment and  inefficiency  of  the  Circles;  inability  of  the  Empire,  as  such, 
to  carry  on  war  proved  in  the  campaign  of  Rossbach ;  disputes  as  to 
raising,  commanding  and  paying  imperial  troops;  a  Jew  contracted  for 
the  raising  of  the  quota  of  soldiers  demanded  from  the  Bishop  of  Pader- 
born. 

Efforts  of  Joseph  II.  to  make  the  imperial  power  a  reality:  besides  try- 
ing to  reform  the  Imperial  Tribunal  and  punishing  bad  rulers,  he  tried 
to  take  a  more  active  part  in  the  Imperial  Diet;  jealousy  aroused  by 
this  action  among  the  Princes  of  the  Empire;  the  project  of  exchanging 
the  Austrian  Netherlands  for  Bavaria  increased  the  apprehension  of  the 
ambitions  of  Austria  ;  Frederick  the  Great  seized  the  opportunity  to 
form  the  Fiirstenbund,  or  League  of  Princes  (23  July,  1785);  impor- 
tance of  this  movement;  it  accentuated  the  rivalry  between  Prussia  and 
Austria  for  the  leadership  of  Germany;  Joseph's  idea  of  uniting  Ger- 
many under  the  Emperor  effectually  thwarted. 


Frederick    William  II.  of  Prussia.  15I 

Joseph  II.  stood  forth  as  the  champion  of  the  German  Church:  the 
interference  of  the  Rota  at  Rome  with  the  metropolitan  court  at 
Mayence  in  the  case  of  an  appeal  from  Spires  caused  a  clause  to  be 
inserted  in  the  capitulation  of  1765  declaring  it  necessary  to  check  all 
encroachments  ou  the  liberties  of  the  Church  in  Germany;  the  action 
of  Joseph  caused  the  Pope  to  withdraw  his  claims;  effect  of  Joseph  II. 's 
action  minimized  by  his  persistence  in  interfering  with  the  rights  of 
German  eccleolastical  Princes  of  the  Empire  in  Austria. 

Imitation  of  the  splendor  and  despotism  of  1^01115;  yTV_p1mo«;i-  uni- 
versal among  German  princes  during  the  first  halfjjf  the  i8th  century; 
followed  during  the  ^^econd^_halfj3y  a  general  adherence  to  the  ideas  of 
enlightened  despotism;  influence  of  Frederick  the  Great  in  bringing 
about  this  change. 

The  situation  in  Prussia  at  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great  (1786): 
the  character  of  his  nephew  and  successor,  Frederick  William  II.  (b. 
1744);  the  internal  policy  of  the  new  king ;  he  maintained  the  admin- 
istrative system  of  his  uncle,  but  in  the  place  of  personal  supervision  left 
the  direction  to  ministers  of  mediocre  capacity  ;  both  the  army  and  the 
civil  service  suffered  from  the  change  of  monarchs  ;  the  Prussian  Court  ; 
influence  of  favorites,  male  and  female  ;  Frederick  William  II. 's  atti- 
tude towards  religion  ;  he  departed  from  the  toleration  which  his  uncle 
had  established ;  influence  of  the  mystics,  Rosicrucians,  etc. ;  his  ex- 
travagance ;  he  spent  the  treasures  accumulated  by  his  uncle  ;  diflSculty 
experienced  in  raising  an  adequate  revenue.. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Frederick  William  II. :  the  management  of  for- 
eign affairs  left  to  Hertzberg  (b.  1725,  d.  1795),  who  had  been  minister 
under  Frederick  the  Great ;  he  desired  to  renew  the  former  friendship 
with  England  ;  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  Dutch  Revolution  of 
1785-87  ;  signature  of  the  Triple  Alliance  between  England,  Prussia 
and  the  United  Provinces  C15  April,  1788);  Hertzberg,  supported  by  the 
Triple  Alliance,  prepared  to  intervene  in  the  settlement  of  the  Eastern 
question.  ^ 

The  most  remarkable  enlightened  despot  in  Germany  was  Cfw^rles 
Frederick  (b.  1728,  d.  i8ii),  Margrave  of  Baden-Baden  and  Baden- 
Durlach  ;  his  writings  on  political  economy  and  attempt  to  put  eco- 
nomic ideas  into  practice ;  he  abolished  serfdom  (23  July,  1783)  and 


152  Germany  in  the  i8th  Century. 

established  a  scheme  of  primary  education  ;  among  other  princes  sim- 
ilarly enlightened  may  be  noted  Maximilian  Joseph,  Elector  of  Ba- 
varia, a  great  law  reformer  and  codifier,  and  Charles  Theodore,  Elector 
Palatine  and  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  suppressed  many  convents,  and, 
with  the  help  of  Count  Rumford  (b.  1753,  d.  18 14),  promoted  reforms, 
but  who  persecuted  the  Protestants;  Frederick  Augustus,  Elector  of 
Saxony  ;  Clement  Wenceslas  of  Saxony,  Elector- Archbishop  of  Treves, 
and  the  Archduke  Maximilian,  Elector- Archbishop  of  Cologne,  who 
were  both  tolerant  rulers,  and  Fiirstenberg,  who  administered  the  bish- 
opric of  Miinster  for  many  years ;  against  these  enlightened  princes  maj^ 
be  set  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  who  sold  his  subjects  to  England 
for  the  American  war,  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg  and  the  Duke  of  Zwei- 
briicken,  or  Deux-Ponts.        '^'^^'^'^^'A   ^^^^--'--^^^-''^^'■f^  '' 

Although  government  in  the  larger  states  of  Germany  was  adminis- 
tered on  enlightened  principles  towards  the  close  of  the  iSth  century, 
the  government  of  the  smaller  principalities  was  generally  oppressive. 

In  spite  of  its  unfavorable  political  condition,  Germany  during  the  i8th 
century  began  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War ; 
material  improvement ;  intellectual  development ;  increase  in  the  num- 
ber and  efficiency  of  German  universities ;  foundation  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Gottingen  (1734);  German  literature;  the  Court  of  Weimar. 

Distant  prospect  in  the  iSth  century  of  German  unity  ;  Frederick  the 
Great,  the  national  hero  ;  distrust  of  the  schemes  of  Joseph  II.;  admira- 
tion felt  for  the  Prussian  system  of  government ;  Germany  hampered  in 
its  development  by  the  existence  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the 
ideas  of  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia. 

Authorities :  Many  of  the  books  cited  tinder  Lectures  45  and  47  describe  the 
attitude  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  Joseph  II.  towards  the  Empire.  A  bright  and 
concise  account  of  the  political  and  social  condition  of  Germany  on  the  eve  of  the 
French  Revolution  is  given  in  Rambaud,  Les  Fran^ais  sur  le  Rhin.  For  the  con- 
dition of  the  Empire  during  the  i8th  century  see  Putter,  Historical  Development 
of  the  Political  Constitution  of  the  Germanic  Empire,  translated  by  Dornford. 
Among  the  general  works  on  Germany  may  be  noted  Biedermann,  Deutschlands 
politische,  materielle,  und  sociale  Zustande  im  i8*^°  Jahrhundert ;  Hausser, 
Deutsche  Geschichte  vom  Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grqssen  bis  zur  Griindung  des 
deutschen  Bundes ;  Heigel,  Deutsche  Geschichte  vom  Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen 
bis  zur  Auflosung  des  alten  Reichs  ;  Perthes,  Politische  Zustande  und  Personen  in 


The  Enlightened  Despots.  153 

Deutschland  zur  Zeit  der  franzosischen  Herrschaft,  aud  Geismar^  Die  politische 
Literatur  der  Deutschen  im  18""  Jahrhundert ;  among  books  on  individual  German 
states,  see  Philippson,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Staatswesens  vom  Tode  Fried- 
richs  des  Grossen  bis  zu  der  Freiheitskriege  ;  Cassel,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  II. ;  Mas- 
senbacfi,  Memoiren  ;  Voss^  Neunuudsechzig  Jahre  am  preussischen  Hofe  ;  Mirabeau, 
Histoire  secrete  de  la  cour  de  Berlin  ;  Hausser,  Uber  die  Regierung  Karl  Fnedrichs 
von  Baden  ;  Kleinschmidt,  Karl  Friedrich  von  Baden;  Erdviaimsdorffer^  Politische 
Korrespondenz  Karl  Friedrichs  von  Baden  ;  Charles  Frederick  of  Baden,  Brieflicher 
Verkehr  mit  Mirabeau  uud  Dupont,  ed.  Knies ;  Hausser,  Geschichte  des  rhcin- 
ischen  Pfalz  ;  Strippelmann,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  Hessen  Cassels  ;  Normann' 
Ehrenfels,  Konigliche  Wiirttemburgischer  Staatsminister,  1756-1817,  Denkwurdig- 
keiten,  ed.  Roth  von  Schreckenstein ;  Schreiber,  Geschichte  Baierns,  and  Count 
Rum/ord,  Memoirs. 


LECTURE  51. 


THE  ENLIGHTENED  DESPOTS. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  in  government  of  the  iSth  century 
was  the  existence  and  the  work  of  the  Enlightened  Despots  ;  though 
differing  in  the  degrees  of  their  enlightenment,  these  rulers  showed  a 
common  tendency  to  use  their  authority  for  the  good  of  their  people. 

The  three  most  important  enlightened  despots,  not  because  they  were 
,most  enlightened,  but  because  of  their  political  power,  were  the  Em- 
peror Joseph  II.,  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine  II.  and  Frederick  the  Great; 
their  example  had  much  to  do  with  changing  the  conception  of  the 
duties  of  monarchy  in  Europe,  but  they  did  not  originate  the  move- 
ment, and  were  its  most  illustrious  rather  than  its  most  thoroughgoing 
representatives. 

Some  of  the  enlightened  despots,  like  the  three  rulers  above  mentioned, 
carried  on  the  work  of  government  themselves  ;  others,  like  Joseph  of 
Portugal,  Charles  III.  of  Spain  and  Christian  VII.  of  Denmark,  showed 
their  sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  the  times  by  supporting  enlightened 
ministers,  like  Pombal,  Tanucci,  Aranda  and  Bernstorff. 

The  origin  of  the  conception  of  enlightened  despotism  is  to  be  found 


154  ^'^^^  E7ilighte7ied  Despots. 

in  the  works  of  the  political  philosphers,  political  economists  and 
jurists  of  the  century. 

The  enlightened  despots  and  their  ministers  were  very  sensitive  to 
the  criticism  of  the  men  of  letters  of  their  time,  and  European  public 
opinion  had  much  to  do  with  initiating  and  encouraging  schemes  of 
internal  reform  ;  the  chief  leaders  of  the  intellectual  movement  in  Eu- 
rope during  the  century  were  Frenchmen,  and  it  was  to  French  writers 
who  were  practically  unable  to  influence  their  own  country  that  foreign 
monarchs  looked  for  advice  and  applause. 

In  the  17th  century  there  was  a  general  movement  towards  giving 
autocratic  power  or  despotism  to  monarchs  because  they  best  realized 
the  State  with  its  ideals  of  internal  peace  and  national  independence  or 
aggression  ;  in  the  i8th  century  autocratic  government  sought  to  justify 
its  further  existence  on  the  ground  that  it  could  do  more  good  for  the 
people  than  any  other  system. 

The  following  points  are  common  to  all  the  enlightened  despots  or 
enlightened  ministers  of  the  i8th  century  :  (i)  their  belief  that  autoc- 
racy logically  implied  extreme  centralization  ;  (2)  their  indifference  to 
racial,  national-  or  local  characteristics,  looking  on  their  subjects  as 
people  to  be  governed  according  to  system  for  their  own  good  whether 
they  liked  it  or  not ;  (3)  their  disregard  of  class  distinctions,  which  led 
them  to  select  servants  from  the  most  suitable  persons  and  finally  de- 
stroyed the  political  power  of  the  aristocracies  of  the  Continent ;  (4) 
their  freedom  from  religious  intolerance,  most  of  them  being  sceptics 
and  regarding  religion  from  an  impersonal  standpoint. 

The  enlightened  despots  and  ministers  paid  special  attention  to  the 
following  subjects  ;  some  of  them  distinguished  themselves  more  in  one 
line  than  another ;  but  their  claim  to  be  enlightened  rests  upon  their 
zeal  in  more  than  one  of  the  following  particulars  : 

(i)  Attempts  to  soften  or  abolish  serfdom  and  other  feudal  abuses  : 
in  this  line  Joseph  II.  was  the  most  thoroughgoing  of  the  enlightened 
despots,  but  before  his  time  Pombal  abolished  slavery  in  Portugal  (25 
May,  1773)  and  Tanucci  deprived  the  nobility  of  Naples  of  their  feudal 
power,  while  afterwards  Charles  Frederick,  Margrave  of  Baden,  abolished 
serfdom  in  his  dominions  (23  July,  1783),  and  Andrew  Bernstorff  did  the 
same  thing  in  Denmark  (20  June,  178S). 


The  Enlightened  Despots,  155 

(2)  Projects  of  legal  and  judicial  reform  :  promulgation  of  codes  of 
law,  in  which  work  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  the  Grand  Duke 
Leopold  of  Tuscany,  Maximilian  Joseph  of  Bavaria,  and  Frederick  Au- 
gustus, Elector  of  Saxony,  were  especially  distinguished ;  reforms  in 
judicial  administration  by  the  abolition  of  torture  and  the  introduction 
of  more  humane  methods  of  punishment ;  improvement  in  this  respect 
was  shown  in  the  work  of  all  the  enlightened  despots,  owing  chiefly  to 
the  influence  of  Voltaire  and  Beccaria  ;  effect  of  the  publication  of 
Beccaria's  Dei  delitti  e  delta  pene  (1764),  Montesquieu's  Esprit  des  lois 
(1748),  and  Filangieri's  Scienza  delta  legislazione  (1780). 

(3)  Efforts  to  promote  material  prosperity  by  the  undertaking  of 
public  works,  such  as  draining  marshes,  making  roads  and  improving 
harbors  :  in  these  directions  Frederick  the  Great,  Catherine  II.  in 
Russia,  iVranda  and  Florida  Blanca  in  Spain,  Pope  Pius  VI.  and  Vic- 
tor Amadeus  III.,  King  of  Sardinia,  did  the  most. 

(4)  Adoption  of  the  ideas  of  the  political  economists  in  collecting 
their  revenues  and  encouraging  manufactures  and  commerce  :  some  of 
the  enlightened  despots  were  themselves  distinguished  members  of  the 
Physiocratic  school,  like  Charles  Frederick,  Margrave  of  Baden,  and 
the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  of  Tuscany,  while  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  in 
Austria,  Gustavus  III.  in  Sweden,  Pombal  in  Portugal,  Campomanes 
and  Jovellanos  in  Spain,  and  the  Bemstorffs  in  Denmark,  were  partisans 
of  the  new  school  of  political  economy. 

(5)  Encouragement  of  education,  and  especially  of  higher  education: 
all  the  enlightened  despots  established  academies  of  literature,  science 
and  art  in  their  capitals,  and  encouraged  learned  men;  many  univer- 
sities were  established  or  reorganized,  notably  in  Italy,  Germany,  Den- 
mark and  Portugal ;  systems  of  national  primary  education  were  at- 
tempted by  Frederick  the  Great,  Charles  Frederick,  Margrave  of  Baden, 
and  Campomanes  in  Spain. 

(6)  Freedom  of  the  press  established,  for  instance,  by  Struensee  in 
Denmark  (1770),  Gustavus  III.  in  Sweden  (1784),  and  by  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  (178.^),  but  their  example  was  not  universally  followed, 
though  the  power  of  the  censorship  was  everywhere  diminished. 

''7)  Extension  of  ideas  of  religious  toleration,  embracing  not  only  the 
different  forms  of  Christianity,  but  also  Judaism  :  the  Emperor  Joseph 


156  The  E7ilightened  Despots. 

II.,  and  Bernstoiif  in  Denmark,  specifically  abolished  the  disabilities  ot 
the  Jews ;  Frederick  the  Great  showed  himself  tolerant  to  all  varieties 
of  Christians  ;  but  the  most  famous  declarations  of  toleration,  permitting 
both  liberty  of  thought  and  liberty  of  worship,  were  issued  by  Cath- 
erine II.  in  her  instruction  for  the  making  of  a  new  code  (1766),  which 
even  permitted  the  Muhammadans  to  build  mosques,  and  by  Joseph  II. 
in  his  Edict  of  Toleration  (13  Oct.,  1781). 

(8)  Deliberate  steps  taken  to  diminish  the  wealth  and  power  of  the 
Church  in  Roman  Catholic  states  :  illustrated  by  the  combined  attack 
upon  the  Jesuits,  and  by  the  suppression  of  the  Inquisition  in  Parma 
(1768),  in  I^ombardy  (1775),  in  Tuscany  (1782),  in  Sicily  (1782),  and  its 
modification  in  Portugal  (1769),  and  by  the  measures  taken  for  reducing 
the  number  of  bishops  and  monks,  by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  the  Grand 
Duke  Leopold  of  Tuscany,  Tanucci,  and  the  Elector  Charles  Theodore 
of  Bavaria. 

The  essential  weakness  of  the  enlightened  despots  was  their  attempt 
to  do  everything  without  considering  whether  the  people  were  prepared 
for  reform  ;  further,  there  could  be  no  guarantee  for  the  continuance  of 
their  work. 

Great  services  rendered  by  the  enlightened  despots  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury to  the  cause  of  civilization  and  progress  in  Europe. 

Authorities  :  There  exists  no  single  book  devoted  to  the  history  and  the  work 
of  the  enlightened  despots  of  the  iSth  century  in  Europe,  but  reference  may  be 
made  to  Morse  Sieph£ns,  European  History,  1289-1815.  chapter  i.,  for  a  brief 
sketch  of  their  position,  and  to  Sorel,  Iv' Europe  et  la  Revolution  fran5aise,  vol.  i. 


^ 


LECTURE    52. 


LITERATURE  AND  PHILOSOPHY  IN  THE    18th  CENTURY. 

Characteristics  of  i8th  century  literature  :  it  is  an  age  of  polished 
prose  rather  than  of  poetry;  dominated  at  first  by  severe  classicism,  it 
is  later  affected  by  sentimentalism,  and  ends  with  a  return  to  simple 
naturalism. 


Literature  in  the  i8th  Century.  157 

Importance  of  i8th  century  literature  :  its  influence  on  politics;  its 
effect  on  the  enlightened  despots  ;  its  share  in  paving  the  way  for  the 
ideas  of  the  French  Revolution ;  the  epoch  of  patrons ;  the  position 
held  by  men  of  letters. 

Services  rendered  by  i8th  century  literature  in  making  known  the 
discoveries  of  experimental  science  ;  the  Encyclopedic  Methodiqiie. 

French  literature  in  the  i8th  century  :  decline  of  poetry  ;  the  drama  ; 
tragedy;  Voltaire  (1694-1778);  comedy;  Marivaux  (1688-1763);  Cre- 
billon  (1674-1762);  dramatic  criticism;  Diderot;  importance  of  the 
French  stage;  epic  poetry:  its  decline:  Voltaire's  Henriade ;  other 
poets;  Gresset  (1709-1777);  prose  writers;  historians;  Vertot  (1655- 
1735),  Voltaire,  Rulhiere  (1735-1791);  fiction;  Lesage  (1668-1747), 
Gil  Bias ;  Prevost  (1697-1763),  Manon  Le scant ;  Bernardin  de  Saint- 
Pierre  (1737-1814), /<2«/^^  Virgi7iie ;  theology;  the  preacher  Massillon 
( 1 663-1 742);  the  chief  French  writers  turned  their  attention  to  political, 
philosophical  and  social  questions;  Montesquieu  (1689-1755),  Esprit 
des  lois ;  Holbach  (i 723-1 789);  Helvdtius  (1715-1771);  Raynal  (17^3- 
1796);  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-1778);  his  political  philosophy,  the 
Contrat  Social ;  his  theory  of  education,  Emile  ;  his  sentimentality,  the 
Nouvelle  Heloise ;  the  Encyclopaedists;  Diderot  (i  713-1784);  D'Alem- 
bert  (17 17-1783);  the  typical  man  oflettersof  the  i8th  century,  Voltaire  ; 
his  character,  literary  merits  and  influence. 

English  literature  in  the  i8th  century  :  influence  of  classicism  ;  the 
Age  of  Anne  ;  Pope  (1688-1744);  Swift  (1667-1745);  Addison  (1672- 
1719),  Steele  ^1671-1729),  and  the  Spectator;  Bolingbroke  (1678-1751); 
Defoe  ( 1 663-1 731);  the  middle  period  of  the  century  ;  sentimentalism  ; 
Sterne  (1713-1768);  Johnson  (1709-1784),  and  his  influence  ;  Goldsmith 
( 1 728-1 774);  poetry;  Gray  (17 16-177 1);  return  to  nature  ;  Cowper(i73i- 
1800);  Burns  (1759-1796);  fiction;  Richardson  ( 1743-18 14),  Fielding 
(1707-1754),  Smollett  (1721-1771);  history;  Robertson  (1721-1793); 
Hume(i7ii-i776);  Gibbon  (1737-1794);  classical  scholarship;  Bent- 
ley  (1662-1742);  Porson  (1759-1808). 

Italian  literature  in  the  i8th  century:  its  decadence;  influence  of  the 
academies;  poets  and  play-wrights  ;  Metastasio  (1698-1782);  Goldoni 
(1707-1793);  Gozzi  (1713-1786);  Parini  (1729-99);  Alfieri  ( 1749 -1803); 
prose  writers;  Beccaria  (i 738-1 794);  Filangieri  (1752-1788);  the  study 
of  history;  Muratori  (1672-1750);  Giannone  (1676-1748).  f 


158  Philosophy  in  the  i8th  Ce7itury.. 

Spanish  literature  in  the  i8th  century:  Isla  (1703-1781), /v-^jV  Ger- 
undio ;  its  revival  under  Charles  III;  the  work  of  academies  and  liter- 
ary societies  ;  Campomanes  (i 723-1 802);  Jovellanos  (i 744-1 811). 

Portuguese  literature  in  the  i8th  century:  revival  of  Portuguese 
poetry;  Nascimento  (1734-18 19). 

Danish  literature  in  the  i8th  century:  Holberg  (1684- 1754). 

German  literature  in  the  i8th  century:  its  beginning  and  develop- 
ment ;  the  importance  of  Lessing  (1729-1781)  as  poet  and  critic;  Klop- 
stock  (1724-1803);  Wieland  (1733-18 13);  Herder  (i 744-1 803);  German 
literature  reaches  its  height  with  Schiller  (1759- 1805)  and  Goethe 
(1749- 1832);  causes  of  the  rise  of  German  literature;  its  significance; 
its  characteristics;  the  Court  of  Weimar;  the  German  universities ; 
classical  scholarship  ;  Heyne  (i 729-1 812). 

Relation  of  literature  to  philosophy  in  the  i8th  century. 

Attitude  of  philosophical  writers  toward  religion:  the  French  school; 
Voltaire  ;  Rousseau  ;  D' Alembert ;  Holbach  ;  Helvetius;  the  more  rigid 
philosophical  thinkers  ;  Condillac  (1715-1780);  Condorcet  (1743-1794); 
the  English  Deists;  Bishop  Butler  (1692-1752)  and  the  Analogy;  the 
speculative  philosophy  of  Berkeley  (1684-1753);  Hume  (1711-1777); 
the, German  philosophers  ;  Wolff  (1679- 1754);  the  importance  of  Kant 
(1724-1804). 

The  1 8th  century  writers  of  political  philosophy;  influence  of  I^ocke 
and  the  English  thinkers;  importance  of  Montesquieu,  Rousseau,  and 
Voltaire;  Beccaria  and  Filangieri ;  the  Abbe  de  Saint- Pierre  ( 1658-1743). 

Political  economy  and  its  development  in  the  i8th  century:  Quesnay 
(1694-1774);  the  Marquis  de  Mirabeau  (1715-1789)  ;  Adam  Smith 
(1723-1790)  and  the  publication  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations  (1776). 

Characteristic  features  of  the  literary  and  philosophical  movements 
of  the  1 8th  century. 


LECTURE  53. 


ART  AND  SCIENCE  IN  THE  18th  CENTURY. 
The  tendency  noticed  in  the  17th  century  towards  the  decadence  of 
art,  under  the  influence  of  conventionality  and  sentimentalism,  increases 


Art  in  the  i8th  Century.  159 

in  the  i8th  century,  while  the  development  of  experimental  science  led 
to  startling  discoveries  and  their  application. 

Decline  of  art  in  the  i8th  century  :  its  causes  ;  extended  study  of  the 
theory  of  art ;  Diderot  (i 713-1784);  Reynolds  (i 723-1792);  improve- 
ment of  education  in  art ;  importance  of  Rome  in  this  respect ;  revival 
of  the  study  of  ancient  Greek  art ;  Winckelmann  (1717-1768);  develop- 
ment of  the  arts  of  engiaving  and  etching;  general  diffusion  of  know- 
ledge of  the  great  works  of  art;  royal  and  noble  patronage  of  art ;  the 
formation  of  the  great  galleries  of  Europe;  Diisseldorf,  Dresden;  dilet- 
tantism. 

The  Italian  school  of  painting:  the  Roman  school;  Battoni  (1708- 
1787);  Raphael  Mengs  (1728-1779),  though  German  by  birth,  belonged 
to  this  school ;  the  Venetian  school :  Canaletto  the  elder  (1697-1768;; 
Canaletto  the  younger  (i  724-1 780);  Guardi  (17 12-1793). 

The  French  school  of  painting  :  its  representatives  in  the  i8th  cen- 
tury ;  Boucher  (1703-1770),  and  classicism  ;  Watteau  (1684-1721),  and 
graceful  conventionality;  Greuze  (1726-1805),  and  sentimentalism  ;  new 
ideas  introduced  by  David  (1748-1825);  his  greatness  as  a  draughts- 
man ;  his  influence  on  the  French  school  of  art. 

The  English  school  of  painting:  Hogarth  (i 697-1 764);  his  merits 
and  faults  ;  foundation  of  the  Royal  Academy  (1768);  the  great  English 
portrait  painters;  Reynolds  (1723-1792);  Gainsborough  (1727-1788); 
Romney  (1734- 1802). 

Sculpture  :  the  one  great  sculptor  of  the  i8th  century;  Canova  (1757- 
1822);  his  unique  position. 

Effect  of  the  increased  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  art :  the  excava- 
tions at  Herculaneuni  and  Pompeii ;  the  antiquarians  ;  the  Clementine 
Museum  ;  Visconti  the  elder  (i  722-1 784);  the  great  collections  of  gems 
and  of  classical  antiquities. 

Architecture:  it  continued  at  first  to  be  dominated  by  17th  century 
ideals  and  pseudo-classicism  ;  imitations  of  Versailles  in  Germany  and 
elsewhere;  influence  of  more  correct  knowledge  of  classical  architecture; 
Salvi  (1699-1751)  and  Fuga  (1699-1780)  in  Italy;  Blondel  (1705-1774) 
and  Chalgrin  (1789-18 11)  in  France;  James  Stuart  (17 13-1788)  and 
Robert  Adam  (1728-1792)  in  England. 

Gardening:  reaction  from  the  classical  style  of  Le  Notre  and  from  the 


lOo  Music  in  the  i8th  Century. 

formal  Dutch  garden;  cultivation  of  natural  beauty;  introduction  of 
landscape  gardening;  the  "  English  garden" ;  Kent  (i 684-1 748);  "Ca- 
pability "  Brown  (i 715-1783). 

Music  in  the  i8th  century:  while  the  graphic  arts  decline  in  origi- 
nality and  vitality,  music  with  improvement  of  musical  instruments, 
the  growth  of  the  orchestra,  and  the  better  understanding  of  its  theory 
and  principles,  became  the  most  original  and  characteristic  expression 
of  1 8th  century  civilization;  importance  of  music  as  a  civilizing  agent ; 
immense  popularity  of  the  opera  ;  Italy  was  the  home  of  the  opera, 
which  absorbed'  all  minds  there  ;  the  opera  in  France,  Austria,  Eng- 
land; invention  and  growth  of  the  oratorio  in  England;  development 
of  German  music;  harmony;  the  age  of  the  great  masters,  culminating 
in  Beethoven  (i 770-1827). 

Music  in  Italy:  development  of  the  opera,  the  mass  and  the  song; 
melody;  the  great  singers  of  the  i8th  century;  Farinelli  (1705-1782); 
Caflfarelli  (1758-1826);  the  composers  of  the  Neapolitan  school;  Leo 
(1694-1742);  Piccini  (1728-1800);  Paisiello  (1741-1816);  Cimarosa 
(1749-1801);  the  Venetian  school;  the  teaching  of  singing ;  Porpora 
(1687-1767). 

Music  in  France:  Rameau  (1683-1764);  the  opera  in  France;  the 
rivalry  between  Gluck  and  Piccini ;  cultivation  of  musical  taste  in 
France  in  the  direction  of  theatrical  music;  Gretry  (i 741-18 13);  Mehul 
(1763-1817). 

Music  in  England  :  the  opera ;  rivalry  between  Handel  and  Bonon- 
cini ;  the  greatness  of  Handel  (i  684-1 759);  development  of  the  oratorio; 
church  music  in  England. 

Music  in  Germany:  the  first  great  master,  Johann  Sebastian  Bach 
(1685-1750);  the  opera  in  Germany;  Gluck  (1714-1787);  Mozart  (1756- 
1791);  Mozart  and  his  influence  on  the  development  of  music;  his 
operas  and  masses  ;  his  orchestral  compositions  ;  music  and  its  head- 
quarters at  Vienna  ;  Haydn  (173  2-1 809);  importance  of  music  in  Ger- 
man civilization. 

Popularity  of  experimental  science  in  the  i8th  century  :  men  of 
science  occupied  wi':h  the  application  and  extension  of  the  scientific 
knowledge  and  of  the  discoveries  made  in  the  17th  century;  application 
of  science  to  industrial  ilevelopment. 


Science  in  the  i8th  Century.  l6i 

The  great  mathematicians  :  Euler  (i  707-1 783);  De  Moivre  (1667- 
1754);  D'Alembert  (1717-1783)  ;  Lagrange  C1736-1813)  :  Laplace 
( 1 749-1 827);  \X\^  Mecaniquc  celeste;  Monge  (1746-18 18)  and  descrip- 
tive geometry. 

The  great  biologists:  Morgagni  (1682-1771)  and  anatomy;  Spallan- 
zani  (17 1 9-1 799)  and  his  discoveries  on  the  nature  of  blood;  introduc- 
tion of  vaccination;  Jenner  (1749- 1823). 

The  great  naturalists:  BufFon  (1707-1788);  Daubenton  (1716-1800); 
Lacepede  (1756-1825);  Lamarck  (1744-1829). 

The  great  botanists  :  Linnaeus  (i 707-1 778)  and  his  classification  of 
plants;  Jussieu  (1747- 1836)  and  the  natural  order. 

The  great  mineralogists  and  geologists  :  Werner  (1750-18 17);  Haiiy 
(1743-1822)  the  founder  of  mineralogy;  Dolomieu  (1750-1801). 

The  great  astronomers:  Clairaut  (1713-1765) ;  Maupertuis  (1698- 
1756);  Bradley  (1692-1762);  Herschel  (1738-1822)  and" the  discovery 
of  Uranus;  Lalande  (1732-1807);  Bailly  (1736-1793)  and  the  history  of 
astronomy. 

The  great  physicists:  influence  of  Newton  (1642-1727);  Franklin 
(1706-1790)  and  electricity;  Volta  (1745-1827)  and  the  voltaic  pile; 
Galvani  (1737-1798)  and  galvanism  ;  Reaumur  (1683-1757)  and  the 
improvements  in  the  thermometer  ;  Fontana  (1730- 1803);  influence  of 
the  discoveries  of  Priestley  and  Lavoisier  on  physics. 

The  great  chemists:  Cavendish  (1731-1810);  Lavoisier  (1743- 1794) 
and  Priestley  (1733-1805),  and  the  resolution  of  air  and  water  into  their 
component  parts  ;  Berthollet  ("1748-1822);  Scheele  (1742-1786). 

The  first  balloons  (1783);  Etienne  Montgolfier  (i  740-1 799  ;  Joseph 
Montgolfier  (1745-1810);  Pilatre  de  Rozier  (1756-1785). 

Application  of  scientific  discoveries:  Watt  (1736-1819),  and  the 
steam  engine  ;  Boulton  (1728- 1809);  Hargreaves  (d.  1770),  Arkwright 
(1732-1792),  Crompton  (1753-1827)  and  Cartwright  (1743-1823)  and 
the  development  of  textile  industry. 

Improvements  in  civil  engineering:  extension  of  canals  ;  the  Duke 
of  Bridgewater  (1736-1803)  and  Brindley  (1716-1772)  in  England;  the 
Ladoga  canal  in  Russia;  Munnich  (1683-1767);  other  canals;  drain- 
ing of  marshes;  harbour  improvements;  lighthouses;  Smeaton  (I724- 
I792);  foundation  of  the  Ecole  des  ponts  ct  chatissScs  (1747);  the  work  of 
Perronet  ( 1708-1794'). 


1 62  The  French  Revolution. 

The  practical  character  of  the  i8th  century  is  to  be  seen  in  its  appli- 
cation of  science  to  human  needs. 


5^ 


LECTURE  54. 


THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION. 


LXJie  elections  to  the  States- General :  Mounier  (b.  1758,  d.  1806)  and  v*! 
Sieyes  (b.  1748,  d.  1836);  **  the  revolt  of  the  cures"  ;  the  cahiers.  i/^  ' ^y 

Meeting  of  the  States-General  (5  May,  1789):  the  struggle  between  ' 
the  Orders  ;  the  States- General  declared  to  be  the  National  Assembly 
(17  June);  the  Oath  of  the  Tennis  Court  (20  June);  the  siance  royale 
(23  June);  Mirabeau  (b.  1749);  concentration  of  troops  around  Paris ; 
capture  of  the  Bastille7i4  July);  visit  of  Eouis  XVI  to  Paris  (17  July); 
Bailly  (b.  1736,  d.  i^^)  appointed  Mayor  and  La  Fayette  (b.  1757,  d. 
1834)  Commander  of  the  National  Guard  of  Paris. 

Anarchy  in  France  :  -breakdown  of  the  administrative  S3^stem ;  the 
*'  great  fear  ";  restoration  of  order  by  local  eilort. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  at  Versailles  :  the*  Declaration  of  the 
Rights  of  Man  ;  the  night  of  4  August ;  the  questions  of  royal  veto  on 
legislation  and  of  one  or  two  houses  in  the  legislature  ;  approach  of 
national  bankruptcy  ;  Necker  and  Mirabeau. 

The  King  and  royal  family  brought  to  Paris  (6  Oct.,  1789),  followed 
by  the  Assembly  ;  character  and  policy  of  La  Fayette. 

The  work  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  :  the  Constitution  of  1791  ; 
division  of  France  into  departments  ;  establishment  of  elective  local 
government;  abolition  of  the  old  law  courts,  and  creation  of  a  new 
judicial  system  ;  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  and  its  results; 
the  mania  for  election  ;  weakening  of  the  central  executive  authority  ; 
abolition  of  the  relics  of  feudalism  ;  the  financial  situation  and  its  re- 
sults ;  first^issue  of  assignats. 

Political  history  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  :  effective  authority 
passes  from  the  King  to  the  Assembly  ;  its  refusal  to  undertake  openly 
the  responsibility  of  executive  government;  decree  of  7  Nov.,  1789; 
disorganization  of  the  civil  administration,  of  the  army  and  the  navy ; 


The  French  Revolution.  163 

repression  of  the  military  mutiny  at  Nancy  by  Bouille  (31  Aug.,  1790); 
the  advice  to  the  Court  and  the  plans  of  Mirabeau  ;  death  of  Mirabeau 
(2  Apr.,  1 791);  nature  of  the  opposition  to  the  Revolution  ;  attitude  of 
the  Court ;  attitude  of  the  Church  ;  the  ^migr^s ;  enthusiasm  of  the 
people  for  the  Revolution  ;  the  Federation  of  14  July,  1790. 

The  foreign  policy  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  :  the  debate  on  the 
declaration  of  peace  and  war  (May,  1790);  danger  of  foreign  war; 
Mirabeau,  reporter  of  the  Diplomatic  Committee ;  the  three  questions 
which  gave  rise  to  foreign  complications:  (i)  the  affair  of  Avignon ; 
(2)  the  affair  of  Nootka  Sound,  involving  the  maintenance  of  the  Facte 
de  Famille  ;  (3)  interference  with  the  rights  of  the  Princes  of  the  Em- 
pire in  Alsace. 

Endeavors  of  Mirabeau  to  avoid  foreign  war  ;  the  Queen,  Marie  An- 
toinette, looked  to  her  brother,  the  Emperor  Leopold  II,  for  help  ;  the 
people  believed  the  Court  desirous  of  suppressing  the  Revolution  by 
calling  in  foreign  aid. 

The  flight  to  Varennes  (21  June,  1791):  its  effect ;  definite  and  open 
breach  between  the  King  and  the  Revolution  >  the  massacre  of  the 
Champ  de  Mars  (17  July,  1791);  the  Manifesto  of  Padua  issued  by  the 
Emperor  Leopold  (6  July);  the  Declaration^of  Pilnitz,  signed  by  the 
Emperor  Leopold  and  Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia,  threatening 
France  (27  Aug.);  the  Constitution  of  1791  accepted  by  Louis  XVI.; 
dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  (21  Sept.). 

Growth  of  public  opinion  :  means  of  influencing  it ;  importance  of 
the  newspaper  press  ;  the  journalists  ;  Marat  (b.  1744,  d.  1793),'  Camilla 
Desmoulins  (b.  1762,  d.  1794),  and  Loustalot  (b.  1762,  d.  1790);  im- 
portance of  the  clubs ;  the  Jacobin  Club ;  the  Cordeliers  Club  ;  the 
provincial  clubs. 

The  Municipality  or  Commune  of  Paris. 

The  Legislative  Assembly  :  influence  of  the  Girondin  orators  ;  their 
war  policy;  Brissot  (b.  1754,  d.  1793);  their  decrees  against  the  emigres; 
Louis  XVI. 's  demands  of  the  Rhenish  Electors  ;  French  armies  raised 
and  diiected  to  the  frontier  under  Rochambeau,  La  Fayette  and  Liick- 
ner  ;  debates  on  the  expediency  of  war  with  Austria  in  the  Legislative 
Assembly  and  in  the  Jacobin  Club  ;  declared  opposition  to  the  alliance 
with  Austria  ;    attitude  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  ;  his  death  ( i  March 


164  The  French  Revolution. 

1792);  v/ar  declared  by  France  against  Austria  (20  Apr.,  1792);  the 
policy  of  Dumouriez  (b.  1739,  d.  1823);  position  of  I^ouis  XVI.  and 
Marie  Antoinette. 

Europe  and  the  French  Revolution  :  contemptuous  views  originally 
held  by  foreign  rulers  who  believed  that  the  Revolution  would  destroy 
the  position  of  France  among  the  nations ;  apprehension  felt,  as  time 
went  on,  in  the  states  bordering  on  France  of  the  contagion  of  demo- 
cratic principles  ;  admiration  at  first  felt  in  England  for  the  French 
Revolution  ;  effect  of  Burke's  writings ;  attitude  towards  the  French 
Revolution  of  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine,  Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia, 
and  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden. 

Effect  of  the  outbreak  of  war  en  the  development  and  internal  his- 
tory of  the  French  Revolution. 

Authorities  :  The  best  small  books  on  the  French  Revolution  are  Mignet, 
Histoire  de  la  Revolution  fran^aise,  translated  into  Knglish ;  Carnot,  La  Revolu- 
tion fran^aise ;  and  B.  M.  Gardiner,  The  French  Revolution ;  Morse  Stephens, 
Europe,  1789-1815,  lays  special  weight  on  the  European  relations  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Among  secondary  histories,  Carlyle,  The  French  Revolution,  is  a  prose 
epic  but  not  a  trustworthy  history  ;  MicheleVs  history  is  likewise  rather  a  rhapsody 
than  a  history  ;  Louis  Blanc  and  Thiers  are  out  of  date  ;  Taine,  La  Revolution,  is 
able  and  interesting,  but  prejudiced  ;  Morse  Stephens^  History  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, vol.  I  (1789-91),  vol.  2  (1791-1793)  is  an  attempt  to  summarize  the  latest 
authorities.  Among  secondary  works  of  a  special  character  may  be  noted  ;  for 
the  elections  to  the  States- General,  Chassin^  Le  gdnie  de  la  Revolution;  for  the 
cahiers.  Champion,  La  France  de  1789  d'  apres  les  cahiers  ;  for  Mirabeau,  Lominie, 
Les  Mirabeau,  5  vols.,  MezQres,W\e  de  Mirabeau,  and  Stern,  Das  Leben  Mirabeaus  ; 
for  the  financial  history,  Stourm,  Les  finances  de  I'Ancien  Regime  et  de  la  Revolu- 
tion ;  for  the  ecclesiastical  history,  Sciout,  Histoire  de  la  constitution  civile  du 
clerge  ;  for  the  army,  Duruy,  L'arm^e  royale  en  1789,  lung,  Dubois-Cranc6,  and 
Maire,  Histoire  de  Tafifaire  de  Nancy ;  for  the  flight  to  Varennes,  Fournel, 
L'evenement  de  Varennes,  and  Br  owning, "Da^  Flight  to  Varennes  ;  and  for  a  careful 
and  modern  sketch  of  the  statesmen  of  the  period,  Aulard,  Les  Orateurs  de 
I'Assemblee  Constituante,  and  Les  Orateurs  de  la  Legislative  et  de  la  Convention. 
Numerous  volumes  on  the  Revolution  in  the  provinces  have  been  published,  among 
which  may  be  noted  Seilhac,  Scenes  et  portraits  de  la  Revolution  en  Bas-Limousin, 
Desmasures,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  dans  le  department  de  I'Aisne.  Bouvier,  Les 
Vosges  pendant  la  Revolution,  Lecesne,  Arras  sous  la  '^€yo\vX\ou,  Babeau,  Troyes 
pendant  la  Revolution,  and  the  numerous  volumes  on  Auvergne  published  by 
Mege.     Upon  the  foreign  policy  of  the  Revolution  and  the  relations  of  Revolu- 


The  French  Revolution,  165 

tionary  France  with  Europe  all  earlier  books  have  been  superseded  by  Sorely 
L' Europe  et  la  Revolution  fran^aise  ;  but  reference  may  also  be  made  to  Sybel. 
Geschichte  der  Revolutionszeit  von  1789  bis  1800,  5  vols.,  of  which  the  first  3  vols, 
have  been  translated  into  English  by  Perry.  With  regard  to  primary  authori- 
ties, notice  must  first  be  taken  of  such  contemporary  histories  as  Rabaut  Saint- 
^iienne^  Precis  historique  de  la  Revolution  fran9aise,  Lameth,  Histoire  de  I'Assem- 
blde  constituante,  ''Deux  Amis^\  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  fraujaise,  and  of  the 
files  of  contemporary  newspapers,  especially  the  Mo7iiteur^  of  which  a  reprint 
was  published  in  1850.  Many  valuable  collections  of  documents,  very  carefully 
edited,  have  recently  been  published  at  the  expense  of  the  French  government,  of 
the  municipality  of  Paris,  etc.,  among  which  should  be  noted  the  Archives  Par- 
lementaires  ed.  Mavidal  and  Laurent ;  Recueil  des  actes  relatifs  k  la  convocation 
des  Etats  G^ndraux  de  1789,  ed.  Brette  ;  Assembl^e  ^lectorale  de  Paris,  ed.  Chata- 
vay  ;  I^cs  Elections  et  les  cahiers  de  Paris  en  1789,  ed.  Chassin,  and  La  Soci^te  des 
Jacobins,  ed.  Aulard.  Many  documents  of  value  have  likewise  been  published  by 
the  Societe  de  V histoire  de  la  Revolution  fran^aise,  and  by  the  Societe  d' histoire 
contemporaine,  and  have  appeared  in  the  special  periodicals  devoted  to  Revolu- 
tionary History,  namely  the  Revue  de  la  Revolution,  which  came  to  an  end  in  1889, 
and  the  Revolution  Frangaise^  ed.  Aulard,  which  is  still  in  course  of  publication. 
Numerous  memoirs  have  been  published  in  the  collections  edited  by  Berville  and 
Barri^re,  and  by  Barriire  and  Lescure,  among  which  may  be  specially  noted  those 
of  Baillyy  Bouille^  Ferrit^res,  Brissot  and  Weber ;  not  published  in  these  collec- 
tions may  be  noted  the  Mdmoires  oi Malouet,  Mallet  du  Pan,  Beugnot  and  Bertrand 
de  Moleville.  Of  primary  importance  for  Mirabeau's  policy  is  his  Correspondance 
avec  La  Marck,  ed.  Bacourt.  Mirabeau's  most  important  speeches  have  been  pub- 
lished in  Morse  Stephens,  Orators  of  the  French  Revolution. 

For  the  attitude  of  foreign  countries  towards  the  French  Revolution,  see  in  addi- 
tion to  Sorel,  Burke,  Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France ;  Mackintosh,  Vin- 
diciae  Gallicse ;  Romilly,  Memoirs;  Gower,  Despatches  from  Paris  1790-92.  e«^ 
Browning;  Jefferson,  Writings,  ed  Ford  and  Memoir,  Correspondence  and  Mis 
cellanies,  ed.  Randolph;  Couvern/  ur  Morris,  Mettiorial,  and  Diary  and  Lt-tters  ; 
Geffroy,  Gustaye  IH.  et  la  cour  de  France,  and  Larivi^re,  Catherine  H.  et  la  Revo- 
lution fran^aise. 

LECTURE  55. 


THE   BELGIAN   REVOLUTION,  AND  THE   POLICY   OF  THE 
EMPEROR  LEOPOLD  IL 

The  extent  of  insurrectionary  feeling  in  the  Austrian  dominions  in 
1789  :  contrast  between  the  popular  movements  in  the  Austrian  do- 
minions and  in  France  ;  causes  of  this  contrast. 


c 


1 66  The  Belgian  Revolution. 

The  opposition  to  the  policy  of  Joseph  II.  reached  its  height  in  the 
Austrian  Netherlands. 

The  Belgian  Revolution  of  1789  :  Maria  Theresa's  government  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands  ;  the  administrations  of  Charles  of  Lorraine 
(1744-81)  and  of  the  Archduchess  Maria  Christina  (1781-93);  Joseph's 
policy  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands;  he  enraged  the  Belgians,  (i)  by 
his  political  measures  infringing  their  local  liberties  and  rights  of  local 
self-government  ;  (2)  by  his  religious  policy  and  attempts  to  introduce 
secular  education  ;  the  clerical  opposition  led  by  Cardinal  Frankenberg, 
Archbishop  of  Malines  ;  stern  suppression  of  riots  in  the  Belgian  cities  ; 
Joseph  abolished  the  constitution  of  Hainault  (31  Jan.,  1789),  and  of 
Brabant  (18  June,  1789);  the  Belgian  exiles,  encouraged  by  the  Triple 
Alliance,  raised  an  army  at  Breda. 

The  army  of  Belgian  patriots  under  Van  der  Mersch  crossed  the  fron- 
tier (23  Oct.):  general  insurrection;  evacuation  of  Brussels  (12  Dec), 
and  abandonment  of  the  Catholic  Netherlands  by  the  Austrian  troops  ; 
meeting  of  a  general  convention  at  Brussels  ;  constitution  promulgated 
for  the  Belgian  Republic  (10  Jan.,  1790);  formation  of  the  United 
States  of  Belgium  ;  influence  of  Van  der  Noot  (b.  1735,  d.  1827);  in- 
dependence declared;  death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  (20  Feb.,  1790). 

The  two  parties  in  Belgium— the  Van  der  Nootists  or  Statists,  and 
the  Vonckists  or  Democrats  :  the  Statists  persecuted  the  Democrats, 
and  drove  their  leaders  from  the  country  ;  jealousy  felt  of  Van  der 
Noot  ;  the  Emperor  Leopold  offered  to  restore  the  government  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands  as  it  had  existed  under  Maria  Theresa  ;  the^oger 
rejected  by  the  Belgian  leaders  ;  the  country  entirely  re-occupied  by  the 
Austrians  without  a  blow  (Nov.-Dec,  1790). 

Comparison  of  the  Belgian  with  the  French  Revolution. 

The  Revolution  in  Liege  :  the  people  of  Liege  rose  in  insurrection 
and  expelled  the  Prince-Bishop  (16-18  Aug.,  1789)  ;  the  Prussians 
restored  the  authority  of  the  Bishop  (Nov.,  1789);  the  Austrians  eventu- 
ally occupied  Liege,  at  the  request  of  the  princes  of  the  neighboring 
Circle,  and  restored  the  Bishop  (13  Jan.,  1791). 

The  Emperor  Leopold  II  (b.  1747):  condition  of  Austrian  affairs  at  the 
time  of  his  accession  (20  Feb.,  17,9(3}^  his  character  and  previous  career 
as  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  ;  succeeded  in  Tuscany  by  his  second  son, 
the  Archduke  Ferdinand. 


Policy  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.  167 

Internal  policy  of  Leopold  :  his  concessions  to  the  insurgents  and 
malcontents  in  the  different  provinces  ot  the  House  of  Hapsburg;  he 
gave  up  Joseph's  schemes  of  unification  and  restored  local  government 
and  liberties  to  provinces  not  in  open  insurrection  ;  he  maintained 
Joseph's  edict  of  religious  toleration  and  many  other  reforms,  and 
quieted  the  fear  among  the  people  of  further  innovations. 

Leopold's  foreign  policy  :  first  period  ;  he  determined  to  make  peace 
with  the  Turks  and  to  frustrate  the  schemes  of  Prussia  by  breaking  up 
the  Triple  Alliance  •  the  relations  between  Prussia  and  Poland  ;  the 
Treaty  of  29  March,  1790,  by  which  the  Poles  agreed  to  cede  Thorn 
and  Dantzig  to  Prussia  in  exchange  for  the  retrocession  of  Austrian 
Galicia ;  Leopold  convinced  England  and  the  Dutch  that  he  would 
hand  over  the  Austrian  Netherlands  to  France  if  they  supported  Prus- 
sia in  its  schemes  against  Austria  ;  the  Prussians  concentrated  an  army 
in  Silesia  and  Leopold  an  army  in  Bohemia  ;  the  Conference  of  Reich- 
enbach  (June,  1790);  hy  the  Convention  of  Reichenbach  (27  July), 
Austria  engaged  to  make  peace  with  the  Turks,  the  Triple  Alliance 
guaranteed  the  restoration  of  Austrian  authority  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  Prussia  promised  to  withdraw  its  support  from  the  malcontents  in 
Hungary  and  Belgium,  and  to  support  Leopold's  candidature  for  the 
imperial  throne  ;  great  diplomatic  victory  thus  won  by  Leopold  ;  dis- 
missal of  Hertzberg  from  the  Prussian  foreign  office. 

Leopold  and  the  Turks  :  the  Armistice  of  Giurgevo  (19  Sept.,  1790); 
by  the  Treaty  of  Sistova  (4  Aug.,  1791)  Austria  obtained  from  the 
Turks  Old  Orsova  and  part  of  Croatia. 

Leopold  and  the  Hungarians  :  the  position  in  Hungary  consequent 
on  the  measures  taken  by  Joseph  ;  the  Magyar  nobles  assumed  semi- 
independence,  and  sent  envoys  to  Reichenbach ;  Leopold  marched  an 
army  to  Pesth  ;  he  refused  to  grant  semi-independence  to  Hungary  and 
appointed  his  fourth  son,  Alexander  Leopold,  to  be  Palatine  of  Hun- 
gary (12  Nov.,  1790)  ;  submission  of  the  Magyars  ;  Leopold  crowned 
King  of  Hungary  (15  Nov.);  concessions  made  to  the  national  pride 
of  the  Magyars. 

Leopold  and  the  Empire:  crowned  Emperor  (^9  Oct.,  1790);  his  steps 
to  win  back  the  leadership  of  the  German  princes,  which  Prussia  had 
secured  by  the  formation  of  the  Fiirstenbund  in  1785;  he  availed  him- 


1 68  Policy  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II. 

self  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  disgust  of  the  German  priiicts 
at  the  measures  taken  by  the  French  Constituent  Assembly  with  re- 
gard to  the  rights  of  the  Princes  of  the  Empire  in  Alsace. 

Position  of  I^eopold  in  1791  :  success  of  his  diplomacy  ;  he  had  re- 
stored Austria  to  the  position  she  had  lost  under  Joseph  II. ;  he  had  won 
the  support  of  the  Triple  Alliance  ;  his  attitude  towards  France. 

Leopold's  foreign  policy:  second  period;  his  sister  Marie  Antoinette 
appealed  to  him  for  armed  help  ;  Leopold's  dislike  for  war  ;  the  Mani- 
festo of  Padua  (6  July,  1791);  Leopold  desired  to  maintain  the  power  of 
Louis  XVI.  because  the  Franco-Austrian  alliance  depended  upon  it ;  he 
persuaded  the  King  of  Prussia  to  issue  the  Declaration  of  Pilnitz  with 
him  (27  Aug.,  1 791);  he  protested,  as  Emperor,  against  the  violation 
of  the  rights  of  the  Princes  of  the  Empire  in  Alsace  (3  Dec.)  and  de- 
fended the  Rhenish  princes  for  sheltering  French  emigres  ( 14  Dec);  in 
this  position  he  was  heartily  supported  by  the  Diet  of  the  Empire  ;  sig- 
nature of  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Frederick  William  II. 
of  Prussia  (7  Feb.,   1792);   death  of  Leopold  (i  March). 

Assassination  of  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden  (29  March,  1792);  his  brother 
Charles,  Duke  of  Sudermania,  regent  during  the  minority  of  Gusta- 
vus IV.,  pursued  a  neutral  policy. 

Parties  at  the  Court  of  Prussia  :  Frederick  William  II.  determined  to 
adhere  to  the  alliance  with  Austria,  and  after  the  death  of  Leopold 
became  the  leader  of  the  alliance. 

Francis  II.,  eldest  son  of  Leopold,  crowned  Emperor  (14  July,  1792): 
the  last  Holy  Roman  Emperor. 

Victor  Amadeus  III.,  King  of  Sardinia,  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Austria  against  France  (July,  1792). 

Conditions  under  which  the  war  with  France  commenced. 

Authorities  :  On  Belgium  in  the  i8th  century  and  the  Belgian  Revolution,  see 
Juste,  Histoire  de  la  Belgique  ;  Discaitles,  Les  Pays-Bas  sous  le  regne  de  Marie 
Th^rese  ;  Piot,  Le  regne  de  Marie  Therese  dans  les  Pays-Bas  autrichiens  ;  Borg- 
nety  Histoire  des  Beiges  a  la  fin  du  XVIIIieme  siecle  ;  Gachard,  Etudes  surl'histoire 
des  Pays-Bas,  and  Documents  sur  la  revolution  beige  de  1790  ;  Poullet,  Mdmoire 
sur  I'ancienne  constitution  braban5onne ;  A.  Wolf,  Maria  Christina,  Erzherzogin 
von  CEJsterreich,  and  Leopold  II.  und  Maria  Christina,  ihr  Briefwechsel  ;  Magnette, 
Joseph  II.  et  la  liberie  de  I'Escaut,  1781-85  ;  Delplace,  Joseph  II.  et  la  revolution 
brabangonne ;  Juste,  La  revolution  braban^onne,  Les  Vonckistes,  La  republique 


The   War  of  the  Freiich  Revolution.  i(n; 

beige,  and  Le  comte  de  Mercy-Argenteau  ct  I'Hbandon  dc  la  Belgique  ;  Ve>hdf;^fH. 
Le  cardinal  de  Prankenberg;  Thn'nrr.  Jean-Henri,  comte  de  Frankenberg,  car- 
dinal-archeveque  de  Malines  et  sa  lutte  pour  la  liberty  de  I'Eglise  ;  Lorenz,  Kaiser 
Joseph  II.  und  die  Belgische  Revolution,  nach  den  Papieren  des  Grafeu  Murray,  in 
his  Drei  Biicher  Geschichte  und  Politik ;  Zeissherg,  Zwei  Jahre  Belgischcr  Gc- 
schichte  ( in  the  Sitzuugsberichie  des  kaiserlichen  Akademie  liir  VVisseuschaft,  1891 ) ; 
Artieth  Sind,  Flammennont,  Correspondance  secrete  du  Comte  de  Mercy-Argeuieau 
avcc  I'empereur  Joseph  II.  et  le  prince  de  Kaunitz  ;  Discailles,  Lc  g6ndral  Van  der 
Mersch  avant  la  revolution  braban^onne,  and  Alexandre  de  Bronx  ;  Galestoot^ 
Chronique  des  ^v^nements  les  plus  remarquables  arrives  a  Bruxellcs  (1780-1827); 
Gerard,  Rapedius  de  Berg,  m^moires  et  documents  pour  servir  a  I'hisioire  de  la 
revolution  braban^onne  ;  Van  de  Spiegel,  ZijneTijdgenooten,  ed.  Vreede,  and  Staes, 
De  Belgische  Republiek  van  1790.  On  the  revolution  in  Liege,  see  Borgnet,  His- 
toire  de  la  revolution  liegeoise  de  1789 ;  C.  W.  von  Dohm,  Die  Liitticher  Revolu- 
tion von  1789,  and  Chestret,  Papiers  dc  Jean  Remi  de  Chestret  pour  servir  k  I'his- 
toire  de  la  revolution  liegeoise.  For  the  policy  of  Leopold,  see  Schels,  Geschichte 
CEsterreichs  unter  der  Regierung  Leopolds  II.;  Zeissberg,  Kaiser  Leopold  II.  (in 
AUgemeine  Deutsche  Biographic);  Sorely  L'Europe  et  la  Revolution  fran^aise ; 
Von  Sybel,  Geschichte  der  Revolution szeit ;  Vivenot,  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  der 
deutschen  Kaiserpolitik  CEsterreichs  wahrend  der  Franzosischen  Revolutions- 
kriege ;  Huffer,  Diplomatische  Verhandlungen  aus  der  Zeit  der  Franzosischen 
Revolution;  Beer,  Joseph  II.,  Leopold  IT.  und  Kaunitz,  and  Leopold  II.,  Franz 
II.  und  Catharina,  ihre  Correspondenz,  nebst  einer  Eiuleitung  zur  Geschichte  der 
Politik  Leopolds  11.  ;  Vivenot,  Die  Politik  des  oesterreichischen  Staatskanzlers 
Fiirsten  Kaunitz-Rietberg  unter  Kaiser  Leopold  II.,  and  Crenx,  Pitt  et  Frederic 
GuiUaume  II.,  I'Angleterre  et  la  Prusse  devant  la  question  d'Orienten  1790  et  1791. 


LECTURE   h^. 


THE  WAR  OF  THE  FRENCH  REPUBLIC  AGAINST  EUROPE. 

French  reverses  at  the  commencement  of  the  war :  the  invasion  of 
the  Tuileries  (20  June,  1792);  the  proclamation  of  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick ;  the  plan  of  campaign ;  the  Austrians  invaded  French  Flanders, 
and  the  Prussians,  Lorraine  and  Champagne  ;  rapid  advance  of  the  in- 
vaders ;  excitement  in  Paris  ;  general  belief  in  France  that  the  Court 
sympathized  with  the  invaders  ;  capture  of  the  Tuileries  and  suspen- 
sion of  the  King  (10  Aug.)  ;  summons  of  a  National  Convention. 


170  The   War  of  the  French  Revolution, 

Desperate  efforts  made  for  the  defense  of  France  :  the  work  of  Dan- 
ton  (b.  1759,  d.  1794)  and  of  Vergniaud  (b.  1759,  d.  1793);  desertion  of 
La  Fayette  (20  Aug.);  capture  of  Verdun  by  the  Prussians  (2  Sept.); 
the  massacres  in  the  prisons  of  Paris  (2-6  Sept.);  the  Prussians  re- 
pulsed by  Dumouriez  at  Valmy  (20  Sept.);  retreat  of  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick  ;  gallant  defense  of  Lille. 

Meeting  of  the  National  Convention  (20  Sept.,  1792);  declaration  of 
the  French  Republic  ;  parties  in  the  Convention  ;  the  Girondins  and 
the  Mountain  ;  the  Marsh  or  Plain  ;  Louvet's  attack  on  Robespierre 
(29  Oct.)  and  Robespierre's  reply  (5  Nov.). 

Successes  of  the  French  armies  :  attack  made  upon  the  King  of  Sar- 
dinia ;  Montesquiou  occupied  Savoy,  and  Anselme,  Nice  (Sept.,  1792)  ; 
Custine  invaded  Germany  and  took  Spires  (i  Oct.),  Worms  (4  Oct.) 
and  Mawnce  (21  Oct.)  ;  Dumouriez  invaded  the  Austrian  Nether- 
lands, defeated  the  Austrians  at  Jemappes  (6  Nov.),  and  occupied  the 
whole  of  Belgium  and  Liege ;  excitement  and  delight  caused  in 
France  by  these  successes  ;  the  Revolutionary  Propaganda  ;  decree  of 
19  November  ;  Savoy  declared  annexed  to  the  French  Republic  (27 
Nov.),  and  Belgium  (15  Dec). 

The  debates  in  the  Convention  ;  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  ;  his  execution 
(21  Jan.,  1793). 

Dumouriez's  plan  for  conquering  the  United  Provinces  :  France  de- 
clared war  against  King  George  III.  and  the  Stadtholder  William  V. 
(i  Feb.,  1793)  ;  other  countries  joined  in  the  war  against  France, 
namely,  Spain,  Portugal,  Tuscany,  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  eventually,  on 
22  March,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  ;  Sweden,  Denmark,  Switzerland, 
Geneva,  Genoa,  Venice,  the  Turks  and  the  United  States  of  America 
remained  neutral ;  attitude  of  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine. 

Change  in  the  character  of  the  war  :  want  of  discipline  in  the  French 
army  and  navy;  England  became  the  paymaster  of  the  coalition;  the 
policy  of  Pitt  and  Grenville  in  England  ;  Thugut  (b.  1734,  d.  18 18)  be- 
came chief  minister  in  Austria,  and  Haugwitz  (b.  1752,  d.  1832)  in 
Prussia. 

Campaign  of  the  spring  and  summer  of  1793  :  failure  of  Dumouriez's 
military  operations  (Feb. -March);  the  Austrinns  under  the  Prince  of 
Coburg  defeated  Dumouriez  at  Neerwinden  (18  March),  and,  with  the 


The  Reign  of  Terror.  lyi 

help  of  the  English  under  the  Duke  of  York,  drove  the  French  out  of 
Belgium  ;  desertion  of  Dumouriez  (5  April);  the  English  and  Austrian 
army  invaded  France  and  took  Conde  (15  July)  and  Valenciennes  (28 
July);  Custine  driven  from  Germany  (March);  the  Prussians  under 
Brunswick  took  Mayence  (23  July),  crossed  the  frontier  (August)  and 
defeated  the  French  at  Pirmasens  (14  Sept. );  the  Austrians  and  Imperi- 
alists under  Wurmser  invaded  Alsace,  laid  siege  to  Landau,  and  carried 
the  lines  of  Wissembourg  (13  Oct.);  French  attacks  repulsed  by  the  Sar- 
dinians ;  Toulon  occupied  by  the  English  and  Spaniards  under  Hood 
and  Langara  (28  Aug.);  the  Spaniards  invaded  France  at  both  enSs  of 
the  Pyrenees. 

Effect  of  these  disasters  on  the  Convention  :  decree  for  the  levy  of 
300,000  men  (24  Feb.);  establishment  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  (9 
March)  and  of  the  first  Committee  of  Public  Safety  (7  Apr.);  struggle 
between  the  Girondins  and  the  Mountain  ;  overthrow  of  the  Girondins, 
(31  May-2  June). 

Outbreak  of  civil  war :  the  insurrection  in  the  Vendee ;  the  rising 
in  Normandy  ;  revolt  of  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Marseilles  and  Toulon. 

Thg_  Constitution  of  179,^  :  formation  of  the  Great  Committee  of 
Public  Safety  (July-Sept.,  1793);  it  established  the  Reign  of  Terror. 

The  Reign  of  Terror  in  France  :  the  Law  of  the  Maximum  ;  the 
Law  of  the  Suspects  (17  Sept.);  suspension  of  the  Constitution  of  179;; 
and  autocracy  of  the  Great  Committee  ;  causes  of  the  power  of  the 
Great  Committee  ;  its  chief  means  for  maintaining  its  authority:  (i) 
the  Revolutionary  Tribunal ;  executions  in  Paris  ;  (2)  the  Representa- 
tives on  Mission  ;  their  repression  of  internal  disturbances  ;  the  Grea^ 
Committee  restored  discipline  in  the  army  and  navy,  and  concentrated 
the  resources  of  France  for  the  foreign  war  ;  incidents  of  the  Reign  of 
Terror  ;  the  Worship  of  Reason  ;  the  Novades^at  Nantes. 

Campaign  of  the  ^all  and  winter  of  1793  :  plans  of  Carnot  (b.  1753. 
d.  1823);  Houchard  raised  the  siege  of  Dunkirk  and  defeated  the  Duke 
of  York  at  Hondschoten  (8  Sept.);  Jourdan  (b.  1762,  d.  1833)  raised 
the  siege  of  Maubeuge  and  defeated  the  Prince  of  Coburg  at  Wattig- 
nies  (16  Oct.);  Hoche  (b.  1768,  d.  1797),  after  being  defeated  by  the 
Prussians  at  Kaiserslautern  (28-30  Nov.),  combined  operations  with 
Pichegru  (b.  1761,  d.  1804);  battle  of  the  Geisberg  (26  Dec);  relief  of 


172  The    War  of  the  ]rrt7ich  Revolution, 

lyandau  (28  Dec);  retreat  of  the  Prussians  to  Mayence  ;  the  Aus- 
trians  and  Imperialists  driven  across  the  Rhine  ;  Toulon  recovered 
by  Dugommier  (19  Dec);  the  Spaniards  driven  across  the  Pyrenees  ;. 
capture  of  Lyons  (9  Oct.)  and  defeats  of  the  Vendeans  at  Le  Mans  (12 
Dec.)  and  Savenay  (22  Dec). 

Opposition  to  the  Great  Committee  of  Public  Safety  and  to  the  Reign 
of  Terror  in  the  Convention  and  in  Paris  ;  exejcution  of  the  Hebertists 
(24  March,  1794)  and  of  the  Dantonists  (5  April);  increased  stringency 
of  the  Reign  of  Terror  ;  the  position  of  Robespierre  (b.  1758);  decree 
establishing  the  Worship  of  the  Supreme  Being  (7  May). 

Naval  operations  :  occupation  of  Corsica  by  the  English  under  Hood 
and  Graham  (May-June,  1794);  George  III.  offered  the  throne  of  Cor- 
sica (June);  conquest  of  the  French  West  Indies  by  Grey  and  Jervis  ; 
Martinique  (22  March,  1794),  Tobago  and  Guadeloupe  (April,  1794);  the 
situation  in  San  Domingo  ;  occupation  of  the  French  settlements  in 
India  (1793);  attempt  of  Jeanbon  Saint-Andre  to  revive  the  French 
navy;  defeat  of  the  Brest  fleet  by  Howe  (b.  1722,  d.  1799)  in  the  Battle 
of  the  First  of  June  (1794). 

Campaign  of  1794  :  organization  of  the  volunteer  army  ;  work  of 
Dubois-Crance  ;  victories  of  the  French  armies  ;  Jourdan  defeated  the 
Austrians  at  Fleurus  (26  June),  and  with  Pichegru  occupied  Belgium  ; 
Rend  Moreaux  (b.  1758,  d.  1795)  defeated  the  Prussians  near  Kaisers- 
lautern  (12-14  July)  and  occupied  Treves  (9  Aug.);  the  French  de- 
feated the  Sardinians  on  the  Italian  frontier  and  occupied  the  passes  of 
the  Alps  (May);  invasion  of  Spain  by  Dagobert  and  Muller  at  both 
ends  of  the  Pyrenees  (May-June). 

With  the  French  victories  and  the  repulse  of  the  invaders  the  neces- 
sity for  submitting  to   the  Reign  of  Terror  ceased ;  identification  of      ^ 
Robespierre  and  his  friends  with  the  Reign  of  Terror  ;  the  Revolution    jC\ 
of  9  Thermidor  (27  July);  execution  of  Robespierre  and  his  friends  (28  0" 
July);  end  of  the  Reign  of  Terror. 

Characteristics  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  in  France ;  triumph  of  the 
French  Republic  over  the  powers  of  Europe. 

Authorities :  In  addition  to  the  general  works  cited  under  Lecture  54  should 
be  noted  the  following  special  secondary  works  :  For  the  summer  of  1792  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy,  Mortimer-  TernauXy  Histoire  de  la  Terreur ;   for 


The  Reign  of  Stanislas  Poniatovski.  173 

the  Girondins,  Vatel,  Vergniaud  ;  Dauban,  Madame  Roland ;  Guadet^  Les  Giron- 
dins,  aud  Eire,  La  Idgeude  des  Giroudius,  which  explodes  the  fancies  of  Lamar- 
tine  and  others  ;  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondins,  IVallon,  La  R<ivolution  de  31 
Mai,  and  for  the  wandering  of  the  escaped  deputies,  yate/,  Charlotte  Corday  ct  les 
Girondins  ;  for  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  Gros,  Le  Comity  de  salut  public  ; 
for  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  Campardon,  Histoire  du  Tribunal  r^volutionnaire, 
and  Wallon,  Histoire  du  Tribunal  r^volutionnaire  de  Paris,  and  for  the  deputies  on 
mission,  IVal/on,  Les  Representants  du  peuple  en  mission  ;  for  the  worship  of 
Reason,  Aulatd,  Le  culte  de  la  Raison  et  le  culte  de  I'Etre  Supreme ;  for  the 
army,  Rousset,  Les  volontaires  (1791-94),  and  lung,  Dubois-Cranc^  ;  for  the  navy, 
Chevalier^  Histoire  de  la  marine  fran9aise  sous  la  premiere  Republique ;  James, 
Naval  History  of  Great  Britain  (1793-1820);  Jollivet,  Les  Anglais  dans  la  Medi- 
terranee  (.I794"97)»  ^"^  royaume  Anglo  Corse  ;  Mahan,  Influence  of  Sea- Power 
upon  the  French  Revolution  aud  Empire  ;  for  the  war  upon  the  frontiers,  Chu- 
quel,  Les  guerres  de  la  Revolution,  9  vols.;  Krebs  and  Moris,  Campagnes  des 
Alpes  peudant  la  Revolution  ;  Fervel,  Campagnes  de  la  Revolution  fran^aise  dans 
les  Pyrenees  orientales,  and  Ducere,  L'arm^e  des  Pyr^n^es  occidentales  ;  and  for 
the  Vend^an  war,  Chassin,  La  preparation  de  la  guerre  de  Vendue,  and  La  Vendue 
patriote.  Among  biographies  should  be  specially  noted  Robinet,  Danton  ; 
Hamel,  Histoire  de  Robespierre,  and  Histoire  de  Saint-Just ;  Chevremont,  Marat ; 
Avenely  Anacharsis  Cloots  ;  Clareiie,  Camille  et  Lucile  Desmoulins,  and  Reynaud, 
Merlin  de  Thionville.  To  the  primary  authorities  cited  under  Lecture  54 
should  be  added  Aulard,  Recueil  des  actes  du  Comit^  de  salut  public,  and  Oiar- 
avay.  La  correspondance  gen^rale  de  Carnot ;  and  to  the  memoirs  cited  under 
Lecture  54,  the  Mdmoires  oi  Dumouriez,  Madame  Roland,  Senart,  and  Choudieu^ 
together  with  Lacretelle,  Dix  annees  d'epreuves. 


LECTURE  57. 


THE  SECOND   AND  THIRD   PA.     ITIONS   OF  POLAND. 

The  reign  of  Stanislas  Poniatovski  ib.  1732,  elected  King  of  Poland 
1764,  d.'i798). 

The  designs  of  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine  for  the  further  partition  of 
Poland  :  the  Poles  after  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great  began  to 
look  for  help  to  Prussia,  which  desired  to  annex  Thorn  and  Dantzig  ; 
the  Treaty  of  Warsaw  (29  March,  1790)  ;  the  action  of  the  Polish  en- 


174  T^^^^  Polish  Constitution  of  lygi. 

voys  at  the  Conference  of  Reichenbach  (June,  1790);  the  independent 
attitude  of  Poland  in  1790. 

Internal  reforms  effected  in  Poland  during  the  reign  of  Stanislas  :  at- 
tempts made  to  create  a  national  army  to  take  the  place  of  the  feudal 
army,  to  establish  a  national  system  of  finance,  and  to  provide  a  na- 
tional scheme  of  education  ;  the  aims  of  the  Polish  patriots ;  they  de- 
sired to  make  Poland  a  state  instead  of  a  loose  confederation  of  nobles  ; 
attitude  of  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria  towards  the  reform  party  in 
Poland. 

Meeting  of  the  Constituent  Diet  (6  Oct.,  1788);  it  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  draw  up  a  new  constitution  for  Poland,  raised  the  national 
army  to  60,000  men,  and  decreed  a  large  lev}^  of  taxes. 

The  Polish  Constitution  of  1791:  accepted  by  the  Diet  (3  May,i79i); 
mainly  the  work  of  Kollontai  (b.  1752,  d.  181 2);  it  abolished  the  elec- 
tive monarchy,, the  liberum  veto,  the  right  to  confederate  and  the  capit- 
ulations ;  it  declared  the  throne  of  Poland  hereditary  in  the  House  of 
Saxony  after  the  Jeath  of  Stanislas  ;  it  created  a  regular  government 
conferring  the  legislative  authority  on  the  king,  senate  and  elected 
chamber,  and  the  executive  authority  on  the  king  aided  by  six  minis- 
ters responsible  to  the  legislature  ;  the  middle  classes  of  the  cities  were 
admitted  to  political  rights  and  allowed  to  elect  deputies  to  the  legisla- 
ture ;  the  nobility  agreed  to  pay  taxes  to  the  extent  of  ten  per  cent,  of 
their  income  :  serfdom  was  not  abolished,  but  the  Diet  declared  its  will- 
ingness to  give  all  arrangements,  made  between  a  lord  and  his  serfs  for 
the  benefit  of  the  latter,  the  sanction  of  the  law. 

Comparison  between  the  French  and  the  Polish  constitutions  of  179 1. 

Prussia  and  Austria  at  Pilnitz  acknowledged  the  new  Polish  Consti- 
tution, but  Catferine  of  Russia,  fearing  it  would  make  Poland  a  strong 
state,  determined  to  overthrow  it ;  formation  of  the  Confederation  of 
Tar  go  vitsa,  which  protested  against  the  Constitution  of  1791,  and  the 
abolition  of  the  liberum  veto  ;  request  of  the  Confederates  to  Cathe- 
rine  to  aid  them  ;  her  manifesto  declaring  herself  the  guarantor  of  the 
ancient  Polish  Constitution  (18  May,  1792);  a  Russian  army  under 
Suvorov  invaded  Poland  ;  the  Russians  defeated  Joseph  Poniatovski 
at  Zielence  (18  June)  and  g^osciuszko  (b.  1746,  d.  18.17)  at  Dubienka  (17 
July);  Kollontai  and  the  Polish  constitutional  leaders  driven  into  exile; 
a  Diet  summoned  and  forced  to  abrogate  the  Constitution  of  1791. 


The  Final  Partition  of  Pola7id^   n95-  ^75 

Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia  refused  to  aid  the  Polish  patriots 
and  sent  a  Prussian  army  into  Poland ;  it  was  owing  to  his  interests  in 
Poland  that  he  decreased  his  efforts  against  France  after  the  campaign 
of  Valmy.  (-i-^i.,     I'l'^  *>,  H  "7  ^'' 

Second  treaty  of  partition  signed  by  Catherine  and  Frederick  William 
(4  Jan.,  m^),  and  agreed  to  by  Stanislas  and  the  Polish  Diet  at  Grodno 
under  the  pressure  of  Russian  troops  (24  Sept.,  1793);  by  this  second 
partition  Russia  annexed  Minsk,  Podolia,  Volhynia  and  Little  Russia, 
while  Prussia  received  Posen,  Gnezen,  Kalisch  and  the  cities  of  Dant- 
zig  and  Thorn  ;  disgust  of  the  Emperor  Francis  II.  and  of  Thugut  at 
Austria's  receiving  no  share  in  the  second  partition  of  Poland  ;  their 
resolution  that  the  war  witEi  the  French  Republic  should  not  prevent 
them  from  looking  after  Austrian  interests  in  Poland. 

The  Polish  insurrection  of  1794  :  the  standard  of  national  indepen- 
dence raised  by  Kosciuszko  at  Cracow  (23  March);  general  insurrec- 
tion throughout  Poland  ;  Kosciuszko  defeated  the  Russians  at  Racla- 
wice  (4  Apr.)  and  occupied  Warsaw  (19  Apr.);  the  Prussians  besieged 
Warsaw  (July-Sept.,  1794);  retirement  of  the  Prussians;  invasion  of 
Poland  by  a  Russian  army  under  Suvcrov  ;  Kosciuszko  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  at  Ma^yjnwice  (12  Oct.);  capture  of  Warsaw  (9  Nov.); 
complete  overthrow  of  the  patriots. 

Third  and  final  partition  of  Poland  (3  Jan.,  1795):  Prussia  received 
Warsaw  and  the  neighboring  provinces  ;  Austria  received  Cracow  and 
the  rest  of  Galicia ;  Russia  rectified  its  frontier  as  arranged  in  1793; 
extinction  of  Poland  as  an  independent  state. 

Stanislas  Poniatovski  removed  from  Poland  (7  Jan.,  1795);  his  abdi- 
cation (25  Nov.,  1795). 

Causes  of  the  failure  of  Poland  to  maintain  her  independence  ;  com- 
parison between  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1794  and  the  successful  na- 
tional resistance  of  France  to  foreign  invaders  in  the  same  year. 

Influence  of  Polish  affairs  upon  the  progress  of  the  war  against 
France  :  weakening  of  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  upon  the 
French  frontier  ;  commencement  of  dissensions  between  Prussia  and 
Austria. 

Authorities :  In  addition  to  Sorel,  Von  der  Briiggen,  Ferrand,fin(\  Angfberg, 
cited  under  Lecture  42,  see  Lelewel,  Geschichte  Polens  unter  Stanislaus  Augustus, 


176  The  Policy  of  the  Thermidoriayis. 

translated  into  German,  and  his  Analyse  et  parallele  des  trois  constitutions  polo- 
naises de  1791,  1807  et  1815,  translated  into  French;  Kalinka,  Der  vierjahrige 
Polnische  Reichstag  (1788-1791);  Kollontai,  Vom  Entslehen  und  Untergange  der 
Polnischen  Konstitution  vom  3  May,  1791,  translated  into  German  by  5.  B.  Linde; 
Bain,  The  Second  Partition  of  Poland  (Eng.  Hist.  Rev.,  vol.  6);  Adam  Czartoryski, 
Memoires  et  Correspondance ;  Oginski,  Memoires  sur  la  Pologne  et  les  Polonais 
de  1788  a  1815  ;  Smitt,  Suworrow  und  Polens  Untergang ;  Herrmaftn,  Die  GEster- 
reichisch-Preussische  Allianz  von  7  Feb.,  1792,  und  die  zweite  Theilung  Polens; 
Zeissberg,  Geschichte  der  Raiimung  Belgiens  und  des  Polnischen  Aufstandes, 
1794  (in  the  Archiv  fiir  C^sterreichische  Geschichte,  Vol.  Ixxii.);  Vivenot,  Quel- 
len  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kaiserpolitik  GBsterreichs  wahrend  der  Fran- 
zos  schen  Revolutionskriege,  vol.  v.;  Sybel,  Geschichte  der  Revolutionszeit ;  and 
Sorel,  L' Europe  et  la  Revolution  fran^aise. 


L  E  C  T  U  R  E  58. 


THE   TREATIES   OF   BASI,E. 

The  government  of  the  Thermidorians  in  France  :  they  continued 
the  system  of  vigorous  organization  and  centralization  initiated  by  the 
Great  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  but  discontinued  the  bloodshed  of 
the  Reign  of  Terror. 

The  internal  policy  of  the  Thermidorians  :  they  retained  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Committees  of  Government  and  the  power  of  the  Dep- 
uties on  Mission  ;  rising  cry  for  vengeance  against  the  Terrorists ; 
execution  of  Carrier  (16  Dec,  1794);  decree  closing  the  Jacobin  Club 
(12  Nov.,  1794)  and  repeal  of  the  Law  of  the  Maximum  (24  Dec,  1794); 
readmission  to  the  Convention  of  most  of  the  proscribed  Girondins  (8 
Dec,  1794),  and  of  the  remainder  (8  March,  1795). 

Foreign  policy  of  the  Thermidorians  :  the  continued  victories  of  the 
republican  armies  changed  the  attitude  of  France  from  that  of  a  nation 
fighting  for  existence  to  that  of  a  conqueror;  Merlin  of  Douai  (b.  1754, 
d.  1838)  defined  the  bases  on  which  France  might  honorably  make 
peace  (4  Dec,  1794),  and  the  Convention  finally  abandoned  the  idea  of 
the  Revolutionary  Propaganda. 


The   War  oj  the  French  Revolution.  177 

Campaign  of  1794-5  • 

The  French  under  Pichegru  conquered  the  Protestant  Netherlands  : 
occupation  of  Amsterdam  and  capture  of  the  Dutch  fleet  in  the  Texel 
(20  Jan.,  1795);  withdrawal  of  the  English  army  to  England;  the 
Thermidorians  refused  to  annex  the  Protestant  Netherlands  ;  return  of 
the  Dutch  "  Patriots"  who  had  been  exiled  in  1787  ;  organization  of 
the  Batavian  Republic;  the  mission  of  Sieyes  and  Reubell:, alliance 
signed  between  the  French  and  Batavian  Republics  (16  May,  1795). 

Jourdan  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Aldenhoven  (2  Oct.,  1794),  and 
occupied  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Bonn,  Cologne  (9  Oct.;  and  Coblentz  (22 
Oct.);  two  French  armies  invaded  Spain,  that  of  the  Eastern  Pyrenees 
under  Dugommier  took  Figueras  (27  Nov.,  1794)  and  under  Perig- 
non  took  Rosas  (3  Feb.,  1795)  and  that  of  the  Western  Pyrenees  under 
Moncey  took  Vittoria  (17  July,  1795)  and  Bilbao  (19  July);  defeat  by 
Hoche  of  the  Emigres  landed  at  Quiberon  Bay  from  English  ships  (July, 

1795)- 

Result  of  French  victories  at  home  and  abroad. 

Increasing  vehemence  of  the  attacks  on  the  Terrorist  leaders ;  the 
Thermidoiians  ousted  from  power  by  the  returned  Girondins  and  depu- 
ties of  the  Marsh  ;  influence  of  the  Jeunesse  Doree  in  Paris ;  popular  in- 
surrections and  attacks  on  the  Convention  on  12  Germinal  (i  April,  1795), 
and  on  i  Prairial  (20  May);  disarmament  of  the  Faubourg  Saint- An- 
toine ;  execution  of  Fouquier-Tinville  (8  May)  and  abolition  of  the 
Revolutionary  Tribunal  (31  May);  reaction  in  the  provinces  against 
the  Terrorists  ;  the  * '  White  Terror  ' '  in  the  South  ;  preparations  made 
for  drawing  up  a  new  constitution  for  France  ;  death  of  the  Dauphin, 
de  jure  Louis  XVII.  (8  June). 

Changed  attitude  of  Europe  towards  France  :  general  readiness  to 
make  peace  with  France,  now  that  she  had  abandoned  the  Revolution- 
ary Propaganda  and  had  shown  herself  too  formidable  to  be  conquered  ; 
commencement  of  negotiations  for  peace  ;  treaty  of  peace  signed  with 
Tuscany  (9  Feb.,  1795);  the  French  Republic  thus  received  into  the 
comity  of  nations. 

The  negotiations  at  Basle  between  Barthdlemy  (b.  1750,  d.  1830)  for 
France  and  Hardeaber.g  (b.  1750,  d.  1822)  for  Prussia:  the  demands 
made  by  the  French  Republic ;  the  question  of  the  natural  limits  of 


1 78         ,  The  Treaties  of  Basle. 

France  ;  treaty  of  peace  signed  with  Prussia  (5  April,  1795);  line  of 
demarcation  established,  protecting  the  Northern  States  of  Germany 
from  French  invasion  ;  importance  of  this  provision,  which  placed 
North  Germany  under  obligations  to  Prussia  ;  by  a  secret  article  Prus- 
sia recognized  the  river  Rhine  as  a  natural  boundary  of  France,  and 
promised  to  cede  all  her  possessions  on  the  left  bank  in  exchange  for 
ecclesiastical  states  to  be  secularized  in  Germany. 

The  Treaty  of  Basle  with  Prussia  followed  by  other  treaties  signed  at 
the  same  place  :  the  most  important,  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  (22 
July);  the  political  situation  in  Spain  ;  power  of  Godoy  (b.  1767,  d. 
185 1),  the  Queen's  lover,  who  was  created  Prince  of  the  Peace. 

Other  treaties  signed  at  Basle  :  with  Hesse-Cassel  (28  Aug.),  and 
other  German  states. 

Importance  of  the  Treaties  of  Basle  in  the  history  of  Europe  :  Prus- 
sia's assent  to  the  proposition  that  the  French  boundary  should  be  the 
Rhine,  thus  diminishing  the  Empire,  and  her  readiness  to  further  break 
up  the  Empire  by  annexing  ecclesiastical  territory. 

Austria's  reasons  for  continuing  the  war  :  the  policy  of  Thugut  ; 
negotiations  for  the  exchange  of  Madame  Ro^le,  daughter  of  Louis 
XVI.,  for  certain  deputies  of  the  Convention  helS  prisoners  by  Austria. 

Persistence  of  England  in  continuing  the  war  ;  influence  of  the  ad- 
vice of  the  French  emigres  ;  popular  feeling  in  England  with  regard  to 
the  French  Republic  ;  Pitt  and  Grenville  refused  to  believe  in  the  sta- 
bility of  the  government  in  France. 

Work  of  the  Thermidorians  :  sudden  change  in  the  position  of 
France  from  an  invaded  country,  seemingly  on  the  point  of  dissolution, 
to  a  victorious  and  triumphant  nation. 

Authorities  :  No  authoritative  work  exists  upon  the  government  of  the  Ther- 
midorians and  hardly  any  documents  of  importance  have  been  published  on  this 
period.  The  most  useful  secondary  work  on  the  period  is  contained  in  the 
various  articles  by  Sorel  in  the  Revue  Historique,  with  the  same  author's  more 
exhaustive  treatment  of  the  foreign  policy  in  his  L'Europe  et  la  Revolution  fran- 
5aise,  vol.  4.  The  most  accessible  primary  authorities  are  Fain,  Manuscrit 
de  r  an  III.;  Aulard,  Paris  pendant  la  reaction  thermidorienne  et  sous  le  Direc- 
toire,  and  Schmidt,  Tableaux  de  la  Revolution  fran^aise,  which  contains  the  reports 
of  the  spies  on  the  condition  of  Paris.  The  material  collected  by  Schmidt  was 
worked  up  by  him  in  his  Pariser  Zustande  wahrend  der  Revolutionszeit,  which  has 


The  French  Coyistitution  of  the   Year  III.  179 

been  translated  iuto  French  by  Viollet.  For  the  rising  of  Prairial,  see  Claretie^ 
Les  derniers  Montagnards,  and  IVallon,  Les  Repr^sentauts  du  peuplc  en  mission, 
vol.  5 ;  for  the  royalist  risings,  Daudel,  La  reaction  royalistc  an  Midi  en 
1795;  for  the  affair  at  Quiberon,  Thomas  de  Closntadeuc,  Quiberon,  1795,  and 
Chassin,  Le  general  Hoche  a  Quiberon  ;  and  for  the  conquest  and  reorgan- 
ization of  Holland,  Legrand,  La  Rdvolution  francjaise  en  Hollandc  la  Re- 
publique  batave ;  and  of  Belgium,  Lanzac  de  Laborie,  La  Domination  fran- 
$aise  en  Belgique  (i795-i8r4).  For  the  Treaties  of  Basle  and  the  events 
leading  to  them,  see  Sorely  L'Europe  et  la  Revolution  fran9aise  and  La  Paix 
de  Bale  (Revue  Historique,  vols.  5-7);  Hdusser,  Deutsche  Geschichte  vom 
Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  bis  zur  Griindung  des  deutschen  Bundcs ;  Heigel^ 
Deutsche  Geschichte  vom  Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen  bis  zur  Auflosung  des  alten 
Reichs ;  Philippson,  Geschichte  des  preussischen  Staatswesens  vom  Tode  Fried- 
richs des  Grossen ;  Sybel,  Geschichte  der  Revolutionszeit ;  Gentz,  Cber  den 
Ursprung  und  Charakter  des  Kriegs  gegen  die  franzosische  Revolution  ;  Zeissberg^ 
Zur  deutsche  Kaiserpolitik  CBsterreichs  :  ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  des  Revolu- 
tionsjahre.  1795  { S  tzungberichte  der  Kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften 
1889);  Hiiffer^  Diplomatische  Verhandlungen  aus  der  Zeit  der  franzosischen 
Revolution;  Vivenot  and  Zeissberg,  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kaiser- 
politik CEsterreichs  wabrend  der  franzosischen  Revolutionskriege;  Vivenot^  Ver- 
trauliche  Briefe  des  Freiherrn  von  Thugut  (1790-1801),  Herzog  Albrecht  von 
Sachsen-Teschen  als  Reichsfeldmarschall,  Thugut,  Clerfait  und  Wurmser  ( 1794-97), 
and  Zur  Geschichte  des  Baseler  Friedens  ;  Witzleben,  Prinz  Friedrich  Josias  von 
Coburg-Saalfeld,  Herzog  zu  Sachsen  ;  Combes,  Memoire  sur  la  correspondance 
ofificielle  de  Merlin  de  Thionville  relativement  aux  ndgociations  de  Bale  ;  and  above 
all,  Kaulekf  Papiers  de  Barth^lemy,   ambassadeur  de  France  en  Suisse,  1792-97. 


LECTURE  59. 


THE  FRENCH  DIRECTORY,  AND  THE   FIRST  VICTORIES 
OF   BONAPARTE. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Year  III.  (1795):  its  most  important  feature, 
the  attempted  separation  of  the  executive  and  legislative  authorit3%  the 
former  being  vested  in  five  Directors,  the  latter  in  two  Chambers,  the 
Council  of  Ancients  and  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 

The  Convention  resolved  that  two-thirds  of  the  first  legislature,  un- 
der the  new  constitution,  should  be  elected  from  among  themselves ; 


i8o  The  Policy  of  the  First  Directors. 

discontent  expressed  among  those  who  wished  for  further  reaction 
against  the  Terrorists  at  this  resolution  ;  insurrection  of  13  Vendemi- 
aire  (5  Oct.,  1795)  in  Paris,  and  its  suppression. 

The  first  Directors  :  Barras  (b.  1755,  d.  1829),  Reubell  (b  1746,  d. 
1810),  Revelliere-Lepeaux  (b.  1753,  d.  1824),  Carnot  (b.  1753,  d.  1823) 
and  Letourneur  (b.  1751,  d.  1817). 

The  foreign  poHcy  of  the  first  Directors  :  adoption  of  the  principles 
of  the  Thermidorians  ;  readiness  to  make  peace  on  the  terms  of  receiv- 
ing the  natural  boundaries  of  France  ;  the  only  enemies  of  the  Repub- 
lic left  were  England,  Austria  and  Sardinia  ;  the  treasonable  intrigues 
of  Pichegru  ;  the  activity  of  the  emigres  ;  exchange  of  Madame  Roy- 
ale  (20  Dec,  1795);  attitude  of  Austria,  England,  Prussia,  Spain  and 
the  smaller  states  of  Europe  towards  the  French  Republic;  endeavors 
of  the  Directors  to  form  an  alliance  with  Prussia  and  Spain. 

Failure  of  the  French  armies  upon  the  Rhine  in  the  winter  campaign 
of  1795,  owing  to  the  treachery  of  Pichegru;  Pichegru  succeeded  by 
Jean  Victor  Moreau  (b.  1763,  d.  1813). 

The  condition  and  military  situation  of  the  Army  of  Italy  :  Scherer 
pushed  forward  and  by  the  victory  of  Loano  (23-25  November,  1795) 
opened  communications  with  the  Republic  of  Genoa,  which  was  w^ell 
affected  to  France. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  (b.  1769,  d.  1821)  in  command  of  the  Army  of 
Italy  (27  March,  1796);  his  previous  career. 

Campaign  of  1796  in  Italy  :  first  stage  :  Bonaparte  turned  the  Mar- 
itime Alps  and  separated  the  Sardinian  from  the  Austrian  army  ;  he 
defeated  the  Sardinians  under  Colli  at  Montenotte  (12  April),  Millesimo 
(13  April),  Dego  (15  April),  Ceva  (16  April)  and  Mondovi  (22  April); 
Victor  Amadeus  III.  of  Sardinia  signed  the  Armistice  of  Cherasco  (28 
April),  and  made  peace  with  the  French  Republic,  ceding  Savoy  and 
Nice  to  France  (15  May). 

Campaign  of  1796  in  Italy  :  second  stage  :  Bonaparte  crossed  the  Po, 
and  (10  May)  forced  the  passage  of  the  Adda  at  the  bridge  of  Lodi ; 
the  Austrians  evacuated  Eombardy  ;  Bonaparte  occupied  Milan  and 
laid  siege  to  Mantua  ;  the  Dukes  of  Parma  and  of  Modena  forced  to  sue 
for  peace  ;  Bonaparte  occupied  the  Legations  of  Ferrara  and  Bologna ; 
Pope  Pius  VI.  signed  the  Armistice  of  Foligno  (23  June). 


The  Caf}ipaig?i  of  1796.  181 

Campaign  of  1796  in  Italy:  third  stage:  an  Austrian  army  under 
Wurmser  invaded  Italy  for  the  relief  of  Mantua;  Bonaparte  broke  up 
the  siege  and  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Castiglione  (5  Aug.);  Wurmser 
retreated,  but  in  the  following  month  entered  Italy  by  the  valley  of  the 
Brenta,  and  reinforced  the  garrison  of  Mantua ;  delegates  from  the 
whole  of  northern  Italy  summoned  by  Bonaparte  to  meet  at  Milan. 

Campaign  of  1796  in  Italy  :  fourth  stage  :  renewed  effort  made  by  the 
Emperor  Francis  II.  for  the  recovery  of  Lombardy  ;  his  appeal  to  his 
people  ;  the  Austrian  army  under  Alvinzi  invaded  Italy  by  the  Brenta  ; 
the  French  repulsed  at  Caldiero  (12  Nov.);  Bonaparte  victorious  in  the 
battle  of  Areola  (16  Nov.);  retreat  of  the  Austrians. 

Campaign  of  1796  in  Italy  :  fifth  stage  :  the  Austrians  made  a  last 
effort  to  relieve  Mantua  by  way  of  Lake  Garda  ;  Bonaparte  defeated 
Alvinzi  at  Rivoli  (14  Jan.,  1797);  surrender  of  Mantua  (2  Feb.,  1797); 
advance  of  Bonaparte  on  Rome ;  Pope  Pius  VI.  signed  the  Treaty  of 
Tolentino  (19  Feb.,  1797). 

Effect  of  the  campaign  of  1796  on  Italy,  on  Austria  and  on  Europe  ; 
its  effect  on  the  position  of  the  Directors  in  France. 

Campaign  of  1 796  in  Germany  :  Jourdan  and  Moreau  invaded  South- 
ern Germany,  but  were  out-manoeuvred  and  driven  back  by  the  Arch- 
duke Chailes  (b.  1771,  d.  1847);  battle  of  Altenkirchen  (27  Sept.)  and 
death  of  Marceau  (b.  1769);  famous  retreat  of  Moreau  ;  effect  of  this 
campaign  on  Germany  ;  Frederick  William  II.  of  Prussia  signed  a 
secret  supplement  to  the  Treaty  of  Basle  (5  Aug.,  1796);  Baden,  Wiir- 
temberg  and  Bavaria  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  French  Re- 
public. 

Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  under  the  influence  of  Godoy,  signed  an  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliance  with  the  French  Republic  at  San  Ildefonso 
(19  Aug.,  1796),  and  declared  war  against  England  (8  Oct.)  ;  with- 
drawal of  the  English  from  Corsica  (Oct.);  Sir  John  Jervis  defeated 
the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  Saint- Vincent  (14  Feb.,  1797):  an  English 
army  under  Sir  Charles  Stuart  (b.  1753,  d.  1831)  sent  to  defend  Portugal 
against  Spain. 

The  Directory  and  England:  Lord  Malmesbury  sent  to  Paris  to  dis- 
cuss bases  of  peace  (Nov.-Dec,  1796);  Hoche's  expedition  for  the 
invasion  of  Ireland  foiled  by  stormy  weather  (Dec.  1796). 


1 82  The  Treaty  of  Cainpo-Formio,  lypy. 

Internal  policy  of  the  first  Directors:  pacification  of  Brittany  and  the 
Vendee  by  Hoche;  conspiracies  of  Babeuf  (May,  1796)  and  oi  the  camp 
of  Crenelle  (Sept.,  1796);  'financial  condition  of  France. 

Death  of  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine  II.  of  Russia  (17  Nov.,  1796);  acces- 
sion of  the  Tsar  Paul  ;   his  character. 

Campaign  of  1797  :  Bonaparte  invaded  the  Tyrol  and  approached 
Vienna;  preliminaries  of  peace  between  France  and  Austria  signed  at 
Leoben  (18  April,  1797),  by  which  Austria  agreed  to  recognize  the 
Rhine  as  the  frontier  of  France,  which  involved  the  cession  of  Belgium, 
and  to  take  Venetia  in  exchange  for  Lombardy;  a  congress  was  fixed  to 
meet  at  Rastadt  to  arrange  terms  of  peace  between  the  French  Repub- 
lic and  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

The  elections  of  1797  in  France :  Barthelemy  elected  a  Director  in 
the  place  of  Letourneur  ;  the  majority  of  the  legislature  opposed  to  the 
majority  of  the  Directors  ;  fresh  negotiations  for  peace  with  England, 
which  had  been  commenced  at  Lille,  broken  off;  the  majority  of  the 
Directors  were  supported  by  Hoche  and  Bonaparte. 

The  coup  d'etat  of  18  Fructidor  (4  Sept.,  1797);  Merlin  of  Douai  and 
Francois  de  Neufchateau  elected  Directors  in  the  place  of  Carnot  and 
Barthelemy;  death  of  Hoche  (18  Sept.). 

Bonaparte's  policy  in  Italy:  occupation  of  Venice  (16  May);  disso- 
lution of  the  ancient  government  of  Genoa  and  formation  of  the  Ligurian 
Republic  (14  June,  1797);  formation  of  the  northern  Italian  states, 
except  Piedmont,  into  the  Cisalpine  Republic  (9  July);  annexation  of 
the  Ionian  Islands  to  the  French  Republic ;  effect  of  Bonaparte's 
Italian  policy. 

Signature  of  the  Treaty  of  Campo-Formio  between  Austria  and 
France  (17  Oct.,  1797):  the  Preliminaries  of  Leoben  followed;  its  open 
and  its  secret  clauses  ;  capture  of  Mayence  by  Hatry  (29  Dec,  1797). 

Critical  position  of  England  in  1797  :  she  remained  the  only  nation 
in  arms  against  the  French  Republic  ;  the  mutiny  of  the  Nore  and 
other  naval  mutinies  ;  Duncan  defeated  the  Dutch  fleet  in  the  battle  of 
Camperdown  (11  Oct.,  1797). 

Arrival  of  Bonaparte  in  Paris  (5  Dec,  1797);  his  reception  by  the 
Directors ;  appointed  to  the  command  of  an  army  intended  to  invade 
England;  finding  this  impracticable,  he  suggested  and  prepared  an  ex- 
pedition to  Egypt. 


The  Directory.  183 

Authorities :  There  is  no  complete  and  satisfactory  history  of  the  Directory  ; 
Barante,  Histoire  du  Directoirc,  is  out  of  date,  and  the  mo<lern  work  of  Sciout^  Lc 
Directoire,  only  conies  down  to  Fructidor.  On  special  points  the  following  aeC' 
ondary  works  may  be  noted  ;  on  Vendemiaire,  Zivy,  Le  treize  vendcmiaire,  an 
IV.;  on  the  conspiracy  of  Babcuf,  Advielle,  Histoire  de  Babeuf  et  du  Babouvisme  ; 
on  the  coup  d'  dtat  of  Fructidor,  Larue^  Histoire  du  18  Fructidor,  and  Pierre,  La 
Terreur  sous  le  Directoire,  and  Le  Dix-huit  Fructidor  ;  for  the  society,  Goncourtf 
Histoire  de  la  Soci^ld  frau9aise  pendant  le  Directoire  ;  on  the  expedition  to  Ire- 
land, CuUlotiy  La  France  et  V  Irlande  sous  le  Directoire,  and  Escande,  Hoche  en 
Irlande  ;  on  the  plots  of  the  ^migr^s,  Lebon,  L' Angleterre  et  I'emigration  frangaise 
de  179^  a  1800;  for  the  finances,  Stoumt,  Les  finances  de  1'  Ancien  Regime  et 
de  la  Revolution  ;  together  with  Sorel,  Bonaparte  et  Hoche  en  1797.  Primary 
authorities  on  these  subjects  are  :  Real,  Essai  sur  les  journees  de  13  et  14  ven- 
dcmiaire; Danican,  Les  brigands  demasqu^s,  for  the  13th  venddmiaire ;  Biwna- 
rotti,  Conspiration  pour  1'  dgalitd,  dit  de  Babeuf;  Bailleul,  Rapport  sur  le  Dix-huit 
Fructidor  ;  Car7wt,  Rdponse  au  rapport  de  Bailleul ;  Barbe-Marbois,  Journal  d* 
un  deport^,  and  Ramel,  Journal,  for  the  coup  d*  dtat  of  Fructidor  ;  for  the  conduct 
of  foreign  affairs,  Bailleu,  Preussen  und  Frankreich  von  1795-1807,  containing  the 
correspondence  of  the  Prussian  ministers  at  Paris  ;  Mallet  du  Pati,  Correspondance 
inCdite  avec  la  cour  de  Vienne,  and  Wickhatn,  Correspondence  (1794-99);  for  the 
condition  of  Paris,  Schtnidt,  Tableaux  de  la  Revolution  fran9aise,  vol.  3  ;  and 
among  memoirs,  those  o\  Revelli^re-Lkpeaux,  Barras,  and  Talleyrand,  with  77//- 
baudeau,  M^moires  sur  la  Convention  et  le  Directoire.  For  Napoleon's  campaign 
in  Italy  the  account  given  by  Thiers,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  fran9aise,  is  un- 
surpassed for  graphic  power  and  substantial  accuracy  ;  see  also  Sargent,  Napoleon 
Bonaparte's  First  Campaign  ;  lung,  Bonaparte  et  son  temps  (1769-99)  ;  Silvagni^ 
Napoleone  Buonaparte  e  i  suoi  tempi ;  Lanfrey,  Histoire  de  Napoleon,  and  Pomtne- 
reul,  Campagnes  du  general  Bonaparte  en  Italic  ;  while  the  primary  authority 
is  Napoleon,  Correspondance;  for  the  resettlement  of  Italy,  Gaffarel,  Bonaparte 
et  les  rdpubliques  italiennes,  and  Bigorri,  La  caduta  della  Republics  di  Genova 
nel  1797.  Joniini,  Histoire  critique  et  militaire  des  campagnes  de  la  Revolution  de 
1792  ^  1801,  describes  the  campaigns  in  Germany  as  well  as  those  in  Italy  ;  upon 
the  former  see  sXsoJourdan,  M^moires  pour  servir  d  I'histoire  de  la  campagne  de 
1796 ;  Saint-Albin,  Vie  de  Hoche  ;  Par/ait,  Le  gCndral  Marceau  ;  Pajol,  Kldber, 
sa  vie,  sa  correspondance  ;  Martha-Beker,  Le  gdndral  Desaix  ;  Bonnal,  Histoire  de 
Desaix  ;  Philippart,  Life  of  General  Moreau,  and  Rambaud,  Les  Fran9ais  sur  le 
Rhin  (1792-1804).  For  the  naval  war  see  Chevalier  and  James,  cited  under  Lec- 
ture 56,  with  Brefiton,  Life  of  Lord  St.  Vincent;  Tucker^  Memoirs  of  Lord 
St.  Vincent,  and  Catnperdown,  Admiral  Duncan. 


184  The  French  Expedition  to  Egypt ^  1798. 

LECTURE    60. 


THE   bECOND   COALITION  AGAINST  THE   FRENCH   REPUBLIC. 

Bonaparte's  expedition  to  Egypt  (1798):  capture  of  Malta  (10-17 
June);  after  landing  in  Egypt  (i  July)  he  occupied  Alexandria  (2  July), 
won  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  (21  July)  and  occupied  Cairo  (24  July); 
Nelson  (b.  1758,  d.  1805)  destroyed  the  French  fleet  in  Aboukir  Bay  at 
the  Battle  of  the  Nile  (i  Aug.);  Bonaparte  and  his  army  thus  pre- 
vented from  leaving  Egypt. 

Treilhard  elected  a  Director  in  the  place  of  Frangois  de  Neufchateau 
(May,  1798). 

Foreign  policy  of  the  Fructidorian  Directors  :  their  efforts  against 
England  ;  the  expedition  to  Egypt  intended  for  the  overthrow  of  Eng- 
land's power  in  Asia  ;  the  intrigues  of  the  Directors  in  Ireland  ;  a  force 
under  Humbert,  sent  to  assist  in  the  Irish  insurrection  of  1798,  sur- 
rendered to  Cornwallis  (8  Sept.,  1798). 

Pitt's  endeavors  to  form  a  new  coalition  against  the  French  Republic. 

The  position  in  Prussia  :  death  of  Frederick  William  II.  and  acces- 
sion of  Frederick  William  III.  (16  Nov.,  1797);  character  and  training 
of  the  new  king;  he  dismissed  his  father's  favorites,  undertook  re- 
forms, endeavored  to  put  the  finances  in  order  and  appointed  trust- 
worthy ministers  ;  in  foreign  politics  he  resolved  to  maintain  absolute 
neutrality  between  France  and  England  in  spite  of  the  special  missions 
of  Thomas  Grenville  and  Sieyes  ;  policy  of  Haugwitz. 

The  position  in  Austria  :  detestation  felt  for  the  French ;  popularity 
of  the  Emperor  Francis  II.;  riot  in  Vienna  (13  April,  1798)  against 
the  French  ambassador,  Bernadotte  (b.  1764,  d.  1844)  ;  the  Emperor 
entertained  the  proposals  of  Pitt  for  a  new  coalition. 

The  position  in  Russia  :  character  of  the  Tsar  Paul  ;  his  readiness  to 
abandon  the  policy  of  Catherine  and  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  West- 
ern Europe  ;  his  wrath  with  the  French  Republic  for  seizing  Malta  and 
the  Ionian  Islands  and  for  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  the  Eastern  Med- 
iterranean by  invading  Egypt ;  his  agreement  to  join  the  coalition  and 
to  send  armies  to  cooperate  with  the  Austrians  and  the  English  against 
the  French  Republic. 


The  Campaig7i  of  ijgg.  185 

The  position  in  the  smaller  states  of  Europe  :  Sweden  and  Denmark 
maintained  an  attitude  of  friendly  neutrality  towards  France  ;  Portugal 
requested  the  withdrawal  of  the  English  army  under  Stuart,  who  then 
occupied  Minorca  (15  Nov.,  1798);  Spain  remained  in  close  alliance 
with  France  ;  the  Turks  declared  war  against  the  French  Republic  u 
Sept.)  after  the  invasion  of  Egypt. 

Change  in  the  constitution  of  the  Batavian  Republic  ;  establishment 
of  a  Directory  of  five  members  (22  Jan.,  1798);  promulgation  of  a  con- 
stitution modelled  on  that  of  the  Year  III.  in  France  (17  March). 

Revolution  in  Switzerland  :  intervention  of  the  French  ;  formation  of 
the  Helvetic  Republic  (April,  1798);  occupation  of  Geneva  and  the 
Valais  by  French  troops. 

The  French  in  Italy  :  murder  of  Duphot  in  Rome  (28  Dec,  1797); 
occupation  of  Rome  by  Berthier  (15  Feb.,  1798);  departure  of  Pope 
Pius  VI.,  who  was  eventually  carried  prisoner  to  France  and  died  at 
Valence  (29  Aug.,  1799);  formation  of  the  Roman  Republic  (20  March, 
1798);  Ferdinand  IV.,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  after  the  news  of 
Nelson's  victory  of  the  Nile,  drove  the  French  from  Rome ;  Cham- 
pionnet  re-occupied  Rome  (15  Dec,  1798),  defeated  the  Neapolitan 
army,  occupied  Naples  (Jan.,  1799)  and  established  the  Parthenopean 
Republic  (23  Jan.);  the  French  troops  occupied  Piedmont  (Dec,  1798) 
and  Tuscany  (March,  1799). 

General  indignation  in  Europe  at  the  aggressions  of  the  French  Direc- 
tory :  the  Second  Coalition,  freed  from  the  fear  of  Bonaparte,  resolved 
to  act ;  commencement  of  war  ;  the  French  defeated  at  Stockach  (25 
March,  1799),  and  at  Magnano  (5  April);  the  negotiations  at  Rastadt 
broken  oflfand  two  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries  murdered  (28  April). 

Campaign  of  1799  in  Italy  :  a  Russian  army  under  Suvorov  defeated 
Moreau  at  Cassano  (27  April),  occupied  Milan  (29  April)  and  Turin 
(27  May),  and  laid  siege  to  Genoa  ;  the  Russians  defeated  the  French 
under  Macdonald  (b.  1765,  d.  1840)  at  the  Trebbia  (17-19  June);  Fer- 
dinand IV.  re-occupied  Naples  ( June)  ;  the  Austrians  under  Kray  oc- 
cupied northern  Italy  and,  with  the  Russians  under  Suvorov,  defeated 
the  French  under  Joubert  at  Novi  (15  Aug.);  the  Austrians  under 
Melas  defeated  Championnet  at  Genola  (4  Nov.). 

Campaign  of  1799  in  Switzerland:  Massena  (b.  1758,  d.  18 17)  defeated 


1 86  The  Revolution  of  i8  Brumaire,  1799. 

the  Russians  under  Korsakov  at  Zurich  (26  Sept.);  Suvorov's  army 
destroyed  in  crossing  the  Alps  (Sept.);  the  Archduke  Charles  compelled 
by  Massena's  victory  to  abandon  his  scheme  of  invading  France. 

Campaign  of  1799  in  Holland  :  the  English  under  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
cromby  (b.  1734,  d.  1801)  and  Admiral  Mitchell  seized  the  remnant  of 
the  Dutch  fleet  in  the  Texel  (27  Aug.);  an  English  army  under  the 
Duke  of  York  (b.  1763,  d.  1827),  and  a  Russian  army  under  Hermann, 
landed  in  Holland;  the  invaders  defeated  by  General  Brune  (b.  1763,  d. 
1815);  by  the  Convention  of  Alkmaar  (18  Oct.)  the  invaders  agreed 
to  evacuate  Holland. 

Capture  of  Corfu  by  a  Russian  expedition  (2  March,  1799);  organiza- 
tion of  a  Republic  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Tsar,  but  tributary  to  the  Sultan  ;  blockade  of  Malta  by  an  English 
squadron  (i  798-1 800);  surrender  of  the  French  garrison  to  the  English 
(5  Sept.,  1800). 

Bonaparte's  campaign  in  Syria:  he  invaded  Palestine  (Feb.,  1799) 
and  laid  siege  to  Acre;  defeat  of  the  Turks  at  Mount  Tabor  (16  Apr.); 
abandonment  of  the  siege  of  Acre  (20  May)  and  retreat  into  Egypt; 
he  defeated  a  Turkish  army  which  had  been  landed  from  English  ships 
in  Egypt  (25  July)  and  re-established  French  supremacy  there  ;  his 
resolution  to  abandon  his  army  and  return  to  France. 

Effect  of  the  campaign  of  1799  upon  the  allied  Powers  :  wrath  of  the 
Tsar  Paul  with  the  English  and  the  Austrians  ;  his  negotiations  with 
France. 

Effect  of  the  campaign  of  1799  on  the  position  in  France  :  struggle 
between  the  Legislature  and  the  Directory;  reversal  of  the  condition  of 
affairs  in  1797;  Sieyes  succeeded  Reubell  as  Director  ( May,  1799);  Coup 
d'itat  of  30  Prairial  (18  June,  1799);  Gohier,  Roger  Ducos  and  Moulin 
succeeded  Treilhard,  Merlin  of  Douai  and  Revelliere-Lepeaux  as  Direc- 
tors ;  the  policy  of  Sieyes  and  of  Talleyrand. 

Bonaparte  escaped  the  English  cruisers  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
reached  France  (9  Oct.),  and  Paris  (16  Oct.)  ;  his  determination  to 
overthrow  the  goverment  of  the  Directory. 

Revolution  of  18  Brumaire  (9  Nov.,  1799);  Bonaparte,  Sieyes  and 
Roger  Ducos  declared  provisional  Consuls. 

Effect  of  the  Revolution  of  18  Brumaire  on  France  and  on  Europe. 


The  Consulate.  187 

Authorities:  Among  secondary  antborities,  Barante,  Goncourt,  Guillon 
and  Lebon,  cited  under  Lecture  59,  and  Haiisser,  Ileigel,  Philippson,  Legrand, 
Sybel  and  Hiiffer,  cited  under  Lecture  58,  are  still  useful ;  and  among  primary 
authorities,  Bailleu,  Mallet  du  Pan,  Wickham,  Schmidt,  Revelliere-Lepeaux, 
Barras,  Talleyrand,  Thibaudeau,  Jomini  and  Napoleon,  Correspondance,  cited 
under  Lecture  59,  and  Vivenot  and  Zeissberg,  cited  under  Lecture  58.  To  them 
should  be  added  for  general  and  diplomatic  history,  Hiiffer,  Diplomatische  Ver- 
handlungen  aus  der  Zeit  der  franzosische  Revolution ;  Vivenot,  Zur  Geschichte 
des  Rastadter  Kongresses  ;  Helfert,  Der  Rastadter  Gesandtenmord  ;  Masson,  Les 
diplomates  de  la  Revolution  :  Hugou  de  Bassville  a  Rome,  Bernadotte  4  Vienne; 
Wertheinter,  Erzherzog  Karl  und  die  Zweite  Koalition  bis  zum  Frieden  von  Lun^- 
ville  (Archiv  fiir  CEsterreichische  Geschichte,  vol.  67);  for  events  in  Italy,  see 
Franchetti,  Storia  d' Italia  dal  1789  al  1799;  Tivaroni,  Storia  critica  del  Risorgi- 
mento  Italiano  ;  Carulli,  Storia  della  corte  di  Savoia  durante  la  Rivoluzione  h 
I'Impero  Francese  ;  Baldassari,  Histoirede  I'enlevement  et  la  captivitd  de  Pie  VI.; 
Artaudy  Histoire  de  Pie  VI. ;  Helfert,  Konigin  Karolina  von  Neapel  und  Sicilien 
im  Kampfe  gegen  die  franzosische  Wellherrschaft,  and  Fabrizio  Rufifo ;  Revolution 
und  Gegen-Revolution  von  Neapel,  Nov.,  1798  bis  Aug.,  1799;  HUffer,  Die 
neapolitanische  Republik  des  Jahres  1799 ;  and  the  Memoirs  of  Miot  de  Melito^ 
Macdonald  and  Thidbault ;  for  the  Swiss  revolution  see  Tillier,  Histoire  de  la 
republique  helvetique  (1798-1803);  Rochette,  Histoire  de  la  revolution  helv^tique 
de  1797  a  1803;  Roverea,  M^moires;  for  the  military  history  in  Europe,  s^^Jomini^ 
Mathieu  Dumas,  Precis  des  dv^nements  militaires  sur  la  campagne  de  1799; 
Michailowski-Danilewski  and  Miliutin,  Geschichte  des  Krieges  Russlands  mit 
Frankreich  im  Jahre  1799  ;  Macready,  Sketch  of  Suwarow  and  his  Last  Campaign  ; 
Reding'Biberegg,  Der  Zug  SuworoflPs  durch  die  Schweiz;  Giinther,  Der  Feldzug  der 
Division  Lecourbe  im  Schweizerischen  Hochgebirge,  1799;  Bonnal,  La  guerre  de 
HoUande,  and  L'aflFaire  du  Texel,  and  Bunbury,  Some  Passages  in  the  Great  War 
with  France  ;  for  the  campaign  in  Egypt,  in  addition  to  Lanfrey  and  lung,  see 
Bertrand,  Relation  des  campagnes  du  g6n6ral  Bonaparte  en  Egypte  et  en  Syrie  ; 
Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  Le  Directoire  et  I'exp^dition  d' Egypte  ;  Gall,  Bonaparte  en 
Egypte  and  Guitry,  L'armde  de  Bonaparte  en  Egypte  (1798-99);  for  the  Revolu- 
tion of  18  Brumaire,  see  Luden  Bonaparte,  Revolution  de  Brumaire,  and  Memoires, 
tnd  Gohter,  Mdmoi  e**. 


LECTURE  61, 


THE  TREATIES  OF  LUNEVILLE  AND  OF  AMIENS. 

Constitution  of  the  Year  VIII.  (1799):  executive  power  assumed  by 
Bonaparte  as  First  Consul ;  Cambaceres  (b.  1753,  d.  1824)  and  Le  Brun 
(b.  1739,  d.  1824)  appointed  Second  and  Third  Consuls. 


1 88  The  Treaty  of  Luneville^  i8oi. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Bonaparte  as  First  Consul :  his  negotiations 
with  Russia  ;  the  Tsar  Paul's  admiration  for  Bonajmrte  ;  he  ordered 
Louis  XVIII.  to  leave  Russia  and  proposed  that  Bonaparte  should 
make  himself  King  of  France  ;  Bonaparte's  negotiations  with  Prussia  ; 
Frederick  William  III.  expressed  personal  admiration  for  Bonaparte, 
but  refused  to  abandon  his  attitude  of  neutrality  ;  Bonaparte's  negotia- 
tions with  the  new  Pope,  Pius  VII. — Chiaramonti ;  his  resolution  to 
continue  the  war  with  Austria  and  with  England. 

Bonaparte's  campaign  of  1800  in  Italy:  the  defence  of  Genoa  by 
Massena;  surrender  of  Genoa  (4  June);  Bonaparte's  passage  of  the  Alps 
by  the  Great  St.  Bernard  ;  battle  of  Montebello  (9  June);  utter  defeat 
of  the  Austrians  under  Melas  at  Marengo  (14  June),  and  death  of 
Desaix  (b.  1768);  the  French  reoccupied  the  whole  of  Northern  Italy 
xvithout  further  fighting  ;  reestablishment  of  the  Cisalpine  and  Ligurian 
Republics. 

Campaign  of  1800  in  Germany:  manoeuvres  of  Moreau  and  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  ;  Moreau  at  Munich  ;  Moreau  ordered  to  continue  the 
campaign  into  the  winter;  his  defeat  of  the  Archduke  John  (b.  1782,  d. 
1859)  at  Hohenlinden  (3  Dec);  Macdonald  crossed  the  Spliigen  and 
with  Brune  threatened  Vienna;  Moreau' s  advance  on  Vienna;  the 
Emperor  Francis  II.  obliged  to  make  peace. 

Signature  of  the  Treaty  of  Luneville  (9  Feb.,  1801)  by  Joseph  Bona- 
parte (b.  1768,  d.  1844)  and  Cobenzl  (b.  1753,  d.  1808),  the  French  and 
Austrian  plenipotentiaries  :  by  this  treaty  the  Emperor  Francis,  both  as 
Holy  Roman  Emperor  and  as  ruler  of  Austria,  acknowledged  the  Rhine 
to  be  the  frontier  of  France  and  recognized  the  Cisalpine  Republic ; 
Austria  again  received  Venice  ;  the  Duke  of  Modena,  whose  heiress 
had  married  the  Austrian  Archduke  Ferdinand,  received  the  Breisgau 
in  exchange  for  his  duchy,  now  absorbed  in  the  Cisalpine  Republic  ; 
Tuscany  converted  into  the  Kingdom  of  Etruria  and  conferred  upon  the 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  a  relative  of  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the 
Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  promised  a  principality  in  Germany;  Ferdi- 
nand IV.,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  allowed  to  retain  his  dominions, 
and  the  Pope  received  back  the  States  of  the  Church,  with  the  exception 
of  Bologna  and  Ferrara  ;  agreement  made  for  the  re-constitution  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the  secularization  of  the  German  ecclesi- 


The   Treaty  of  Amie7is,  1802.  189 

astical  principalities  ;  Thugut  succeeded  by  Cobenzl  ia  charge  of  Aus- 
trian foreign  affairs. 

Further  arrangements  in  Italy:  the  Cisalpine  Republic  reorganized 
on  the  model  of  the  new  form  of  government  in  France,  and  Bonaparte 
declared  President  of  it,  as  the  Italian  Republic  (Jan.,  1802)  ;  Melzi  (b. 
1753,  d.  18 16)  appointed  Vice-President ;  the  Ligurian  Republic  reestab- 
blished,  with  the  provision  that  its  Doge  be  appointed  by  France. 

The  Batavian  Republic  reorganized  (6  Oct.,  1801) ;  the  Directory 
abolished  and  replaced  by  the  "government  of  state"  of  twelve 
members. 

The  Tsar  Paul  of  Russia  :  his  proposals  to  Bonaparte  for  a  joint  cam- 
paign against  England  ;  his  mad  freaks  and  unpopularity  in  Russia;  his 
assassination  (23  March,  1801). 

Bonaparte's  action  against  England  :  his  desire  to  strike  at  her  com- 
merce ;  reestablishment  of  the  Armed  Neutrality,  or  Neutral  League  of 
the  North,  originally  established  by  the  Tsaritsa  Catherine  in  1780;  the 
English,  under  Parker  and  Nelson,  bombarded  Copenhagen  and  de- 
stroyed the  Danish  fleet  (2  April,  1801). 

War  between  Spain  and  Portugal :  Bonaparte  ordered  that  the  Por- 
tuguese ports  should  be  closed  to  English  trade  and  certain  cessions 
made  to  Spain  ;  Prince  John  of  Portugal,  who  was  formally  declared 
Prince  Regent  in  1799,  refused  ;  the  Spaniards  invaded  Portugal  and 
defeated  the  Portuguese  armies  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Badajoz  (6  June, 
1 801)  Portugal  ceded  Olivenza  to  Spain;  occupation  of  Madeira  and 
Goa  by  the  English. 

The  campaign  in  Egypt  Ci  800-1 801):  victory  of  Kl^ber  (b.  1753)  at 
Heliopolis  (20  March,  1800);  assassination  of  Kleber  (14  June,  1800); 
landing  of  an  English  army  under  Abercromby  in  Egypt  (8  March, 
1 801):  battle  of  Alexandria  (21  March);  surrender  of  Cairo  and  Alex- 
andria ;  the  French  agreed  to  evacuate  Egypt  (2  Sept.,  1801). 

Desire  for  peace  in  both  England  and  France ;  resignation  of  Pitt, 
who  was  succeeded  by  Addington  (March,  1801);  negotiations  for  peace; 
the  Treaty  of  Amiens  signed  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Lord  Cornwallis 
(25  March,  1802);  by  the  terms  of  this  treaty  England  restored  Mar- 
tinique and  Guadeloupe  to  France,  but  retained  Trinidad,  conquered 
from  Spain,  and  Ceylon,  conquered  from  the  Dutch  ;  England  promised 


igo  The  Co7isulate. 

to  restore  Malta  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  if  their  independence  was 
guaranteed  by  the  Great  Powers. 

By  the  Treaties^of  Luneville  and  Amiens,  Europe  was  for  the  first 
time  entirely  at  peace,  since  France  declared  war  against  Austria  in 
1792  ;  position  of  the  powers  of  Europe  towards  each  other  ;  France 
had  come  out  of  the  struggle  not  only  with  undiminished  power,  but 
with  a  general  recognition  of  the  Rhine  as  her  frontier ;  commanding 
position  of  Bonaparte  as  First  Consul. 

Attitude  towards  France  of  England,  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia  and 
Spain. 

Authorities :  For  the  drawing  up  of  the  government  of  the  Consulate  see  the 
Registre  des  deliberations  du  Consulat  provisoire  (11  N0V.-24  Dec,  1799),  ed. 
Aulard ;  for  the  campaign  of  Marengo  in  addition  to  Jomini,  cited  under  Lec- 
ture 59,  see  the  excellent  account  given  in  Thiers,  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de 
r Empire,  and  Sargent,  The  Campaign  of  Marengo  ;  for  the  campaign  in  Egypt, 
see  Wilson,  History  of  the  British  Expedition  to  Egypt ;  for  the  Treaty  of  Lune- 
ville, Krones,  Geschichte  CEsterreichs  im  Zeitalter  des  franzosischen  Kriege  und 
der  Restauration  ;  Beer,  Zehn  Jahre  cesterreichischen  Politik,  1801-10,  and 
Fournier,  Gentz  und  Cobenzl :  Geschichte  der  cesterreichischen  Diplomatie  in 
den  Jahre  1801-05  ;  for  the  Treaty  of  Amiens,  Pellew,  Life  of  Lord  Sidmouth,  and 
Ross^  The  Correspondence  of  the  Marquess  Cornwallis. 


LECTURE   62. 


THE  CONSULATE  IN  FRANCE,  AND  THE  RE-CONSTITUTION 
OF   GERMANY. 

The  constitution  of  the  Consulate  :  the  Council  of  State,  the  Senate, 
the  Tribunate  and  the  Legislative  Body  ;  the  National  List. 

The  goxerQme^xt  of  the  Consulate  :  its  policy  of  reconciliation  ;  many 
imigris  permitted  to  return  ;  complete  pacification  of  the  Vendee  by  the 
Treaty  of  Montlugon  (17  Jan.,  1800);  suppression  of  brigandage;  res- 
toration of  internal  peace. 

The  ^fin^ncial  policy  of  the  Consulate  :  the  work  of  Gaudin  (b.  1 756, 
d.  1844);  taxes  fairly  levied  and  collected  ;  corruption  punished ; 
foundation  of  the  Bank  of  France  (13  Feb.,  1800). 


The  Consulate.  191 

The  Consulate  and  legal  reform  :  commissions  appointed  to  draw  up 
codes  of  law  and  procedure. 

The  Consulate  and  the  CatholiaJChurch :  Bonaparte's  negotiations 
with  the  Papacy  ;  end  of  the  schism  which  had  lasted  since  the  Civil 
Constitution  of  the  Clergy  was  enacted  in  1790  ;  terms  of  the  Concordat 
signed  by  Pope  Pius  VII.  and  the  First  Consul  Bonaparte  (15  July, 
1 801),  and  promulgated  (8  April,  1802). 

The  Consulate  and  education  :  Bonaparte's  attempt  to  establish  a 
scheme  of  national  education. 

The  Consulate  and  the  intprnal  administration  of  France  :  formation 
of  the  Prefectures ;  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  and  Geneva  organized 
as  part  of  France;  the  work  of  Chaptal  (b.  1756,  d.  1832). 

The  Consulate  and  the  colonies-of  France :  Bonaparte  desired  to 
restore  the  power  of  France  in  America ;  he  obtained  Louisiana  from 
Spain  (1800)  and  an  extension  of  French  Guiana  from  Portugal  (1801); 
he  re-occupied  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique  by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens ; 
expedition  to  San  Domingo  ;  resistance  of  Toussaint  Louverture. 

Constitutional  changes  made  during  the  Consulate :  efifect  of  the  Con- 
spiracy of  the  Infernal  Machine  (24  Dec,  i8co)  ;  Bonaparte  declared, 
after  an  appeal  to  the  primary  assemblies,  First  Consul  for  life  (2  Aug., 
1802),  and  enabled  to  nominate  a  successor  (^  Aug.);  the  National 
List  suppressed  and  replaced  by  Electoral  Colleges. 

The  ministers  of  the  Consulate  :  Talleyrand,  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs;  Gaudin,  of  Finance;  Regnier,  of  Justice;  Chaptal,  of  the  In- 
terior ;  Berthier,  of  War ;  Decres,  of  the  Marine  ;    Foijclie,^  of  Police. 

The  re-constitution  of  Germany  :  the  new  arrangements  made  neces- 
sary by  the  cession  to  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Luneville  of  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  and  by  the  proofs  that  had  been  given,  during  the 
war,  of  the  intrinsic  weakness  of  the  political  system  of  the  Empire ; 
the  new  arrangements  accepted  by  the  Imperial  Diet  (24  March,  1803) 
and  by  the  Emperor  (27  April)  ;  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  as  it  had 
existed  since  the  Treaties  of  Westphalia,  practically  came  to  an  end. 

Changes  made  in  the  Colleges  of  the  Imperial  Diet :  (i)  the  College 
of  Electors  increased  from  eight  electors,  three  ecclesiastical  and  five 
lay,  to  ten  electors,  one  ecclesiastical  and  nine  lay  ;  the  ArcliBishops  of 
Cologne  and  Treves  lost  their  electoral  dignity  owing  to  their  dominions 


192  The  Reco7istitution  of  Germany  in  i8oj. 

being  absorbed  into  France  ;  the  Archbishop  of  Mayence  continued  as 
an  elector  and  received  as  his  dominions  the  bishopric  of  Ratisbon,  the 
principality  of  Aschaffenburg  and  the  county  of  Vv^etzlar ;  the  nine  lay 
electors  were  Bohemia,  Brandenburg,  Saxony,  Bavaria  and  Hanover, 
with  four  new  electors,  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  the  Duke  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  the  I^andgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  Ferdinand,  formerly  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  who  was  made  Elector  of  Salzburg  ;  ( 2)  College  of 
Princes  :  owing  to  the  secularization  of  the  Catholic  bishoprics  and 
monasteries  this  college  was  reduced  in  importance  and  contained  a 
majority  of  Protestant  princes  ;  (3)  College  of  Free  Cities  :  this  college 
would  have  been  entirely  abolished  but  for  the  intervention  of  France  ; 
as  it  was,  only  six  free  cities  were  maintained  out  of  fifty-two,  namely, 
Augsburg,  Bremen,  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Hamburg,  Iviibeck  and 
Nuremberg  ;  these  changes  in  the  Imperial  Diet  deprived  the  Catholics, 
and  Austria,  the  chief  Catholic  power,  of  their  predominance. 

The  secularization  of  the  ecclesiastical  states  :  this  step,  which  had 
been  suggested  by  France  at  Basle  and  by  Bonaparte  at  Leoben,  was 
nominally  undertaken  to  compensate  those  Princes  of  the  Empire  w^ho 
had  lost  territory  by  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to 
France  ;  the  princes  who  profited  most  were,  however,  those  who  were 
already  powerful ;  thus  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Baden,  Wiirtemberg  and  Han- 
over all  received  important  accessions  of  territory,  making  them  com- 
pact and  populous  states  ;  Austria  received  only  two  small  bishoprics, 
Brixen  and  Trent,  but  two  Austrian  Princes,  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdi- 
nand and  the  Duke  of  Modena,  received  the  German  states  of  Salzburg 
and  the  Breisgau  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  their  Italian  principali- 
ties ;  the  Prince  of  Orange,  formerly  Stadtholder  in  the  United  Nether- 
lands, received  the  bishopric  of  Fulda. 

Effect  upon  the  policy  and  condition  of  Germany  of  these  sweeping 
changes,  destroying  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  building  up  strong 
German  states. 

The  re-constitution  of  Switzerland  :  Bonaparte's  interference  in  Swiss 
politics  ;  by  the  Act  of  Mediation  (19  Feb.,  1803)  he  restored  federal  gov- 
ernment, but  maintained  the  abolition  of  feudal  relics  and  the  internal 
reforms  made  by  the  Helvetic  Republic ;  to  the  thirteen  old  cantons — six 
democratic,  Appenzell,  Glarus,  Schwyz,   Unterwalden,  Uri  and  Zug, 


The  Reconsiitution  of  ^Switzerland  in  iSoj.  193 

and  seven  oligarchical,  Basle,  Berne,  Freiburg,  Lucerne,  Schafthausen, 
Soleure  and  Zurich — he  added  six  new  cantons:^Vaud,  Aargau,  Thur- 
gau,  Ticino,  Saint- Gall  and  the  Grisons  ;  but  he  retained  Geneva  as 
part  of  France  and  established  the  independent  Republic  of  the  Valais  ; 
he  regulated  the  relations  between  the  federal  and  cantonal  governments, 
and  was  called  Mediator  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  a  title  which  he 
officially  assumed  in  1809. 

Authorities :  A  brief  account  of  the  Consulate  and  of  the  re-constitution  of  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland  is  given  in  Morse  Stephens,  Europe,  1789-1815,  chap.  vii. 
For  the  Consulate,  see  Thiers,  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  1' Empire  ;  Thibaudeau, 
Memoires  sur  le  Consulat,  and  Le  Consulat  et  I'Empire,  and  for  the  policy  of 
Bonaparte,  the  various  lives  and  histories,  particularly  Lanfrey,  Fournier  and 
Taine^  v*dth  Pelet,  Opinions  de  Napoleon  au  Conseil  d'Etat.  Special  secondary 
hooks  are  Rocquain,  Etat  de  la  France  au  18  Brumaire ;  Daudet^  La  police  et  les 
Cbouaus  sous  le  Consulat  et  I'Empire  ;  Guillon,  Les  conspirations  militaires  sous 
le  Consulat  et  I'Empire  Destretn,  Les  deportations  du  Consulat  et  de  I'Empire ; 
Aucoc,  Le  Conseil  d'Etat,  and  Fauriel,  Les  derniers  jours  du  Consulat.  The  Me- 
moirs most  valuable  for  the  subjects  treated  in  this  lecture  are  those  of  Chaptal, 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  Talleyrand,  Mollien,  Roederer,  Pasquier  and  Gaudin.  For 
the  Concordat,  consult  Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  Documents  sur  la  n^gociation  du  Con- 
cordat ;  Sdchi,  Les  origines  du  Concordat;  Theiner,  Histoire  des  deux  Concordats, 
and  the  valuable  work  of  D'Haussonville,  L'Eglise  romaine  et  le  premier  Empire 
(1800-1814).  For  the  re-constitution  of  Germany,  see  Gaspari,  Der  Reichsdeputa- 
tionshauptschluss ;  Ratnbaud,  La  Domination  fran^aise  en  AUemagne ;  HausseTy 
Deutsche  Geschichte  vom  Tode  Friedrichs  des  Grossen;  Oncken,  Das  Zeitalter  der 
Revolution,  des  Kaiserreichs  und  der  Befreiungskriege  ;  Beer^  Zehn  Jahre  oester- 
reichischer  Politik,  1801-1810,  and  Heigel,  Deutsche  Geschichte  vom  Tode  Fried- 
richs des  Grossen.  For  the  re- constitution  of  Switzerland,  see  Ddndliker,  Histoire 
du  peuple  Suisse ;  Hilty,  Les  Constitutions  f^d^rales  de  la  Suisse  ;  Rochette, 
Histoire  de  la  revolution  helv^tique  de  1797  ^  1803  ;  Roverea,  M^moires,  and 
Jahn.^  Bonaparte,  Talleyrand  et  Stapfer,  1800-1803. 


LECTURE63. 


THE  POWER  OF  NAPOLEON  AT  ITS  HEIGHT. 

Recommencement  of  war  between  France  and  England  (18  May, 
1803):  causes  of  the  war  ;   the  points  left  unsettled  by  the  Treaty  of 


194  '^^^  Emperor  Napoleon. 

Amiens  ;  the  question  of  Malta,  which  the  English  refused  to  surren- 
der ;  the  interference  of  the  First  Consul  in  Switzerland  and  his  annex- 
ation of  Piedmont  (ii  Sept.,  1802)  regarded  as  evidences  of  the  desire 
of  France  further  to  disturb  the  peace  of  Europe  ;  Bonaparte's  wrath 
at  the  libels  published  upon  him  in  England  ;  the  trial  of  Peltier  ;  the 
embassy  of  Whitworth  to  Paris  ;  the  English  seized  French  ships  and 
Bonaparte  in  reprisal  arrested  all  Englishmen  travelling  in  France  and 
occupied  Hanover. 

Formation  of  the  Grande  Armee  j__Bonaparte's  genius  for  military 
organization  ;  his  establishment  of  the  camp  at  Boulogne  and  prepara- 
tions to  invade  England. 

Difficulties  of  Bonaparte's  position  ;  the  plot  of  Pichegru,  Georges 
Cadoudal  and  others  against  his  life  ;  arrest  and  execution  of  the  Due 
d'Enghien  (21  March,  1804). 

Bonaparte  offered  the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  French  by  the  Senate 
(18  May,  1804)  ;  the  offer  ratified  by  the  French  people  in  their  primary 
assemblies  ;  coronation  of  Bonaparte  as  the^Emperor  Napoleon  (2  Dec.,J^ 
1804);  also  crowned  King  of  Italy  at  Milan~X26~igg^ri8o5).  x<^  h^-^jj^y^^ 

The  institutions  of  the  Empire  :  the  Imperial  Court ;  increased  im- 
portance of  the  Senate  and  Council  of  State  ;  highly  centralized  form 
of  administration  established  under  the  Empire. 

In  the  year  in  which  Bonaparte  became  Emperor  of  the  French  the 
Emperor  Francis  II.  declared  the  Austrian  dominions  an  hereditary  em- 
pire (11  Aug.,  1804),  and  took  the  title  of  Francis  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria 
(7  Dec);  after  the  formation  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  the 
Emperor  Francis  resigned  the  title  of  Holy  Roman  Emperor  and  ab- 
solved the  Princes  of  the  Empire  from  their  allegian£e  (6  Aug.,  1806). 

Position  of  affairs  in  England  af~The  recommencenient  of  war  with 
France  :  Addington,  who  had  made  the  Treaty  of  Amiens,  succeeded 
as  Prime  Minister  by  Pitt,  who  advocated  a  vigorous  foreign  policy  (18 
May,  1804). 

Pitt's  endeavors  to  form  a  third  coalition  against  Napoleon  ;  Fred- 
erick William  III.  persisted  in  maintaining  the  strict  neutrality  by  which 
Prussia  had  gained  so  much  ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  I.  of  Russia  person- 
ally admired  Napoleon,  but  his  court  and  people  pressed  him  to  side 
with  England  ;  the  execution  of  d'Enghien  and  Napoleon's  treatment 


Austerlitz^  Jena  and  Friedland.  195 

of  his  ambassador  further  impelled  Alexander  to  join  the  coalition 
against  France  ;  the  Emperor  Francis  gladly  entered  the  coalition  ; 
Spain  was  the  close  ally  of  Napoleon,  while  of  smaller  countries, 
Sweden,  under  Gustavus  IV.,  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  Portugal  were  favor- 
able to  the  coalition,  and  Denmark,  to  Napoleon. 

The  campaign  of  1805  :  Napoleon  unable  to  attempt  the  invasion  of 
England  because  the  French  fleet  could  not  command  the  Channel ;  the 
scheme  of  Napoleon  frustrated  by  the  conduct  of  Admiral  Villeneuve  ; 
Nelson  in  command  of  the  Channel ;  Sir  Robert  Calder's  action  with 
the  French  fleet  (22  July);  the  Austrians  under  Mack,  before  the  declara- 
tion of  war,  occupied  Ulm  (Sept.)  ;  Napoleon,  despairing  of  invading 
England,  broke  up  his  camp  at  Boulogne  and  invaded  Germany  ;  sur- 
render of  Mack  at  Ulm  (20  Oct.);  victory  of  Trafalgar  won  by  Nelson 
over  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  (21  Oct.);  Napoleon  at  Vienna ;  a 
Russian  army  joined  the  Austrians  ;  Napoleon's  victory  over  the  Aus- 
trians and  Russians  at  Austerlitz  (2  Dec). 

The  results  of  Austerlitz  :  by  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg  (26  Dec.)  Aus- 
tria ceded  Venetia  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  Istria  and  Dalmatia  to  Na- 
poleon, who  governed  them  under  Marmont  as  the  Illyrian  Provinces, 
and  the  Tyrol  to  Bavaria  ;  the  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg 
given  the  title  of  King,  and  the  Elector  of  Baden  that  of  Grand  Duke ; 
formation  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  (12  July.  1806). 

Death  of  Pitt  (23  Jan.,  1806)  ;  Ministry  of  All  the  Talents  (10  Feb.,    . 
1806-25  Mar.,  1807) ;  death  orFox_(i3  Sept.,  i8o6).-voj^  t:^  vX<*-vy.  ^^^•-tLa.^ 

The  campaign  of  1806  ;  the  altitude  of  Prussia  to  Napoleon,  and  of 
Napoleon  to  Prussia  ;  influence  of  Queen  Louisa  upon  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.;  the  Prussians  defeated  by  Napoleon  at^ena  and  by  Davout 
(b.   1770,  d.   1823)  at  Auerstadt  (14  Oct.);    occupation  of   Berlin  (25        • 
Oct.);  the  French  army  invaded  Poland,  occupied  Warsaw  (28  Nov.)      f 
and  went  into  winter  quarters  on  the  Russian  frontier. 

The  campaign  of  1807  :  battle  of  Eylau  (8  Feb.)  ;  close  alliance 
formed  between  the  Tsar  Alexander  and  Frederick  William  III.  of 
Prussia  by  the  Treaty  of  Bartenstein  (25  April)  ;  surrender  of  Dantzig 
to  the  French  (24  May);  Napoleon's  victory  over  the  Russians  at 
Friedland  (14  June). 

Interview  between  Napoleon  and  Alexander  at  Tilsit  (25  June,  1807), 


196  The  Peace  of  Tilsit^  i8oy. 

followed  by  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  (7  July,  18^7);  by  this  treaty  Russia 
ceded  the  Ionian  Islands,  which  had  been  under  Russia  control  since 
1799,  to  France;  Napoleon  promised  not  to  restore  the  independence  of 
Poland,  but  created  the  part  of  Poland  which  Prussia  had  received  in 
the  second  and  third  partitions  into  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw;  the 
Elector  Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxony,  to  whom  Napoleon  had  given 
the  title  of  King  of  Saxony,  made  Grand  Duke  of  Warsaw;  Napoleon 
suggested  to  Alexander  the  resurrection  of  the  Empires  of  the  East 
and  the  West  and  advised  him  to  extend  his  dominions  at  the  expense 
of  Sweden  and  Turkey.      \  C;1^;tL;::Sl^'^^^^  "^ 

Napoleon  made  peace  vfith  Prussia  (9  July,  1807),  depriving  Fred- 
erick William  III.  of  Polish  Prussia  and  of  all  Prussian  territory  to  the 
west  of  the  Elbe. 

After  the  Peace  ot  Tilsit,  Napoleon  recognized  that  his  sole  remain- 
ing enemy  was  England  ;  progress  of  the  war  with  England  after  the 
battle  of  Trafalgar  ;  triumph  of  the  English  fleet  and  blockade  of  the 
French  coasts  ;  the  English  occupied  Sicily,  to  which  island  Ferdinand 
IV.  had  fled  before  a  French  armj^  in  1805,  and  Sir  John  Stuart  (b.  1759, 
d.  1815)  defeated  General  Reynier  at  Maida  (4  July,  1806);  the  English 
re-occupied  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (Jan.,  1806),  which  had  been  restored 
to  the  Dutch  by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens. 

Napoleon,  being  unable  to  attack  England  directly,  resolved  to  ruin 
English  commerce ;  he  issued  the  Berlin  Decree  (21  Nov.,  1806)  de- 
claring the  British  Islands  in  a  state  ^  blbckadeT  England  replied  by 
the  Orders  in  Council  (11  Nov.*,  1807),  which  Napoleon  followed  by  the 
Milan  Decree  (17  Dec,  1807)  declaring  any  ship  touching  at  a  British 
port  lawfuPprize ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  Russia  agreed  to  the  Con- 
tinental Blockade  ;  effect  of  the  blockade  on  English  commerce,  and  on 
Napoleon's  position  in  France  and  in  Europe. 

The  Duke  of  Portland  became  the  English  Prime  Minister  (31  Mar., 
1807),  with  Canning  and  Castlereagh  as  Secretaries  of  State. 

The  Peace  of  Tilsit  marked  the  zenith  of  Napoleon's  power,  but 
his  splendor  was  most  apparent  during  the  Congress  of  Erfurt  (Sept., 
1808). 

Authorities  :  For  the  history  of  the  Empire,  see  Morse  Stephens,  Thiers,  Thu 
baudeaUy  Foamier  and  Lanfrey,  cited  under  Lecture  62  ;  for  the  personality  of 


The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  197 

Napoleon,  Taine^  Napoleon  ;  Livy^  Napoleon  intime ;  Masson,  Napoleon  ct  sa 
famille,  Napoleon  chez  lui,  and  Napoldon  et  les  femmes ;  Bourrienne,  Memoirs ; 
Mdneval,  Memoirs ;  for  the  outbreak  of  war  with  England,  sec  Oscar  Brownings 
England  and  Napoleon  in  1803,  being  the  Despatches  of  Lord  Whitworth  and 
others  ;  for  the  plots  against  Napoleon,  Cadoudal,  Georges  de  Cadoudal  et  la 
Chouannerie  ;  for  the  execution  of  Enghien,  Welschingery  Le  due  d'Enghien ; 
for  the  relations  between  Napoleon  and  the  Tsar  Alexander,  see  Vandal,  Alex- 
andre I"  et  Napoleon,  and  Tatischeff^  Napoleon  et  le  Tsar  Alexandre  d'apres  des 
documents  in^dits ;  for  the  campaigns  of  Austerlitz,  Jena  and  Friedland,  see  the 
elaborate  works  oi  Jomini,  and  Mathieu  Dumas,  with  the  numerous  books  on 
and  by  the  marshals,  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Grande  Arm^e,  among  which  may 
be  especially  noted  Marbot,  lilemoirs,  and  Thiebault,  Souvenirs;  for  the  Continental 
Blockade,  Lumbroso,  Napoleone  e  I'lnghilterra,  Saggio  suUe  origini  del  blocco 
contiuentale ;  Mahan,  Influence  of  Sea. Power  upon  the  French  Revolution  and 
Empire  ;  for  the  Imperial  Court,  see  Madame  de  Remusat,  Memoirs  ;  and,  as  the 
primary  authority  for  the  whole  period,  the  Correspondence  of  Napoleon  with  his 
I/Cttres  inedites,  ed.  Lecestre.  An  elaborate  bibliography  of  books  dealing  with 
the  period  by  Lumbroso  is  in  course  of  publication. 


I.ECTURE  64. 


EUROPE  DURING  THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON. 

-^         Napoleon,  after  the^2flS3^>yP(  Tilsit,  destroyed  the  last  relics  of  the 

^   Holy  Roman  Empire  and  reorganized  Germany ;  under  his  system  the 

^-  uTConfederaTion  ot  the  Rhine,  of  which  he  was  entitled  the  Protector,  be- 

[G^^came  the  chief  power  in  Germany  ;  it  consisted,  when  at  its  greatest 

^rf^-^tent,  of  thirty-seven  reigning  princes  ;  its  population  of  15,000,000 

^/w* Germans  was  bound  to  contribute  120,000  soldiers  to  the  army  of  Na- 

'^^^^poleon  ;   and  its  policy  was  conducted  b}^  a  Diet,  sitting  at  Frankfort, 

composed  of  two  colleges,  the  College  of  Kings,  including  four  kings 

and  five  grand  dukes,  and  the  College  of  Princes,  including  thirteen 

dukes  and  fifteen  princes. 

The  four  kingdoms  in  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  were  Bavaria, 
Wiirtemberg,  Westphalia  and  Saxony ;  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and 
Wiirtemberg  allied  their  families  with  that  of  Napoleon  and  received 


■:i98-.  Italy  tmder  Napoleon. 

their  reward  in  extension  of  territory  ;  the  King  of  Saxony  made  Grand 
Duke  of  Warsaw  and  included  in  the  Confederation  from  the  impor- 
tance of  his  geographical  position  between  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia  ; 
the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia  created  by  Napoleon  (i8  Aug.,  1807)  from 
the  dominions  of  Prussia  to  the  west  of  the  Elbe,  with  Hesse-Cassel, 
Brunswick,  part  of  Hanover,  etc.,  and  conferred  on  Napoleon's  youngest 
brother,  Jerome  Bonaparte  (b.  1784,  d.  i860). 

The  five  grand  duchies  in  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  were  Baden ; 
Jl£Sse:P3ftnatadt ;-  Berg,  created  by  Napoleon  and  conferred  by  him  on 
his  brother-in-law,  Joachim  Murat  (b.  1771,  d.  18 15)  ;  Frankfort,  con- 
ferred on  Dalberg  (b.  1744,  d.  181 7),  formerly  Archbishop- Elector  of 
Mayence  ;  and  Wiirzburg,  conferred  on  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand, 
formerly  ruler  of  Tuscany. 

Effect  of  the  new  organization  in  Germany  ;  the  French  system  of 
centralized  adn^j^^j^t^a^i'"'^  ^"^  of  military  conscription  everywhere  in- 
troduced ;  serfdom  and  other  feudal  abuses  abolished  ;  the  codified  law 
of  France  introduced  into  Westphalia  and  Berg ;  the  Knights  of  the 
Empire  deprived  of  their  sovereign  rights  ;  the  petty  dukes,  counts 
and  princes  whose  territories  lay  within  those  of  the  reigning  princes 
were  mediatized,  that  is  to  say,  lost  their  immediate  sovereignty,  while 
retaining  their  titles  and  rank  as  a  class  of  privileged  aristocracy. 

Effect  of  these  measures  :  Germany  became  a  confederation  of  more 
or  less  powerful  states  instead  of  a  collection  of  petty  feudal  princi- 
palities. 

Napoleon's  Italian  policy  :  he  appointed  his  step-son,  Eugene  de 
Beauharnais  (b.  1781,  d.  1824),  Viceroy  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  which 
comprised  the  former  Cisalpine  Republic,  with  the  addition,  after  the 
Treaty  of  Pressburg,  of  Venetia  ;  Napoleon  kept  Piedmont  as  part  of 
the  French  dominions,  and  annexed  Parma  (q  Oct.,  1802),  the  Ligurian 
^''^'^epublic  (4  June,  1805),  Etruria  or  Tuscany  (10  Dec,  1807),  and  event- 
ually Rome  (13  Dec,  1810)  directly  to  France,  giving  his  sister  Elisa 
the  title  of  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany  and  Princess  of  Lucca,  and  his 
sister  Pauline  that  of  Duchess  of  Guastalla  ;  the  relations  of  Napoleon 
with  the  Pope  ;  arrest  of  Pius  VII.  (6  July,  1809)  ;  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples  conferred  upon  Napoleon's  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte  (30 
March,  1806),  and  on  Murat  (15  July,  1808;;  great  reforms  accomplished 
in  Italy,  but  failure  of  Napoleon  to  recognize  the  principle  of  nationality. 


NapoleoiC s  Power  at  its  Height.  199 

Napoleon  and  the  Protestant  Netherlands  :   further  change  in  the 

constitution  of  the  Batavian  Republic;  Schimmelpenninck  (b.  1761,  d. 

^_^    1825)  made  Grand   Pensionary  (22  March,  1805) ;    Louis  Bonaparte 

'"      made  Kin^  of  Holland  (24  May,  1806)  ;  dislike  of  the  Dutch  for  the 

Continental  Blockade ;   Holland  annexed  to  Napoleon's  dominions  (9 

July,  1810). 

The  Valais  annexed,  as  the  department  of  the  Simplon,  to  Napoleon's 
empire  (13  Dec,  1810). 

Neufchatel,  Benevento  and  Ponte  Corvo  granted  by  Napoleon  as 
sovereign  principalities,  feudatory  to  himself,  to  Berthier,  Talleyrand 
and  Bernadotte  (l8o6).  -,    ,  ._  ^ 

Denmark  during  the  ascendency 'of  Napoleon  :  Napoleon's  scheme 
for  seizing  the  Danish  fleet ;  the  English,  hearing  of  this  scheme,  bom- 
barded Copenhagen  and  seized  the  Danish  fleet  (2-7  Sept.,  1807); 
friendship  of  Frederick  VI.  of  Denmark  for  Napoleon. 

Sweden 'Sfurmg  the  ascendency  of  Napoleon  :  Gustavus  IV.,  an  enemy 
of  Napoleon  and  ally  of  England  ;  after  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  the  French 
under  Brune  occupied  Swedish  Pomerania ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  con- 
quered Finland  (1808);  insanity  of  Gustavus  IV.;  his  attack  upon 
Denmark;  dethroned  (13  March)  and  his  uncle,  the  former  regent, 
made  king  (5  June,  1809);  Bernadotte  (b.  1764,  d.  1844),  one  of  Napo- 
leon's marshals,  elected  Prince  Royal  of  Sweden  and  heir  to  the  throne 
(5  Nov.,  \^io\^^^^^j,^  t^^^^  Jir^y 

The  Turks/during  the  ascendency/of  Napoleon :  the  Sultan  Selim 
III.  refused  to  enter  Pitt's  coalitioji  against  Napoleon  (1805),  and  an 
English  expedition  under  Duckworth  was  sent  against  him  (1807); 
overthrow  of  Selim  (31  May  1807);  after  an  interval  Mahmud  II.  be- 
came Sultan  (28  July,  1808);^  his  vigor  and  ability;  inclined  to  the  side 
of  France,  but  disliked  theestablishment  of  the  French  in  the  Illyrian 
Provinces  ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  attacked  the  Turks  (1809);  the  Russians 
occupied  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  (18 10),  and  crossed  the  Danube  (181 1). 

The  greatest  extension  of  Napoleon's  empire  attained  by  the  annex- 
ation of  the  districts  along  the  northern  coasts  of  Germany  from  the 
borders  of  Holland  to  the  mouth  of  the  Weser,  including  Bremen, 
Hamburg,  and  Liibeck  (13  Dec,  18 10);  these  districts  were  partly  taken 
from  Westphalia  and  Berg,  and  partly  consisted  of  Oldenburg  and  three 


200  Napoleoji' s  Administration, 

petty  states  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  ;  this  annexation  was 
caused  by  the  difl&culty  of  maintaining  the  Continental  Blockade. 

At  this  time  Napoleon's  empire  was  divided  into  130  departments, 
extending  from  Rome  to  lyiibeck  ;  the  organization  and  administration 
cf  these  departments. 

Napoleon's  administration  when  at  the  height  of  his  power  :  excel- 
lence of  his  civil  service  ;  his  ministers  and  the  Council  of  State  ;  sup- 
pression of  the  Tribunate  (19  Aug.,  1807);  growing  importance  of  the 
police  department ;  Fouche  (b.  1763,  d.  1820),  Minister  of  Police  (1804- 
10),  and  Savary  (18 10-14);  organization  of  the  army,  and  services  of 
Clarke,  Minister  of  War  ;  Napoleon's  legal  reforms ;  the  codes  ;  his 
financial  reforms  ;  his  reforms  in  education  ;  the  formation  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  France  (17  March,  1808). 

Napoleon's  belief  in  the  hereditary  principle  ;  his  new  nobility  ;  his 
desire  for  an  heir  ;  resolution  to  divorce  his  wife,  the  Empress  Josephine 
(b.  1763,  d.  1814). 

Failure  of  Napoleon  to  appreciate  the  forces  working  against  him  at 
the  height  of  his  power  ;  he  had  failed  to  ruin  England,  in  spite  of  all 
his  efforts  ;  he  had  rous^4  the  natiotial  spirit,  which  had_inade_France 
great,  agains^ himJn_Spain  and  in  Germany;  the  Grande  Armee  which 
had^onliis  victories  was  being  destroyed,  and  the  vacancies  in  its 
ranks  filled  by  foreigners  and  young  French  conscripts. 

Authorities  :  Upon  Germany  during  the  Napoleonic  period,  see  Rambaud,  La 
Domination  frangaise  en  Allemagne  (1804-11);  Beck,  Zur  Verfassungsgeschichte 
des  Rheinbunds  ;  Lucchesini,  Sulle  cause  e  gli  effetti  della  confederazione  rhenana ; 
Perthes,  Politische  Zustande  und  Personen  zur  Zeit  der  franzosischer  Herrschaft ; 
Dumoulin-Eckart,  Bayern  unter  dem  Ministerium  Montgelas ;  Montgelas,  Denk- 
wiirdigkeiten  (1799-1817);  Pfister,  Konig  Friedrich  von  Wiirttemberg  und  seine 
Zeit;  Normann-Ehrenfels,  Denkwiirdigkeiten  (1756-1817);  Kleinschmidt,  Ge- 
'  schichte  des  Konigreichs  Westfalen  ;  Du  Casse^  Memoires  et  correspondance  du 
roi  Jerome  ;  Beugnot,  Memoires  ;  Goecke,  Das  Grossherzogthum  Berg  unter  Joachim 
Murat ;  Beaulieu-Margonnay,  Karl  von  Dalberg  und  seine  Zeit ;  Kramer,  Karl 
Theodor,  Reichsft-eiherr  von  Dalberg ;  Bockenheimer,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Mainz, 
wahrend  der  zweiten  franzosischen  Herrschaft ;  and  Hesse,  Geschichte  der  Stadt 
Bonn,  wahrend  der  franzosischen  Herrschaft.  Upon  Italy,  see  Vaudoncourt, 
Histoire  politique  et  militaire  du  Prince  Eugene  Napoleon ;  Lafolie,  Histoire  de 
Tadministration  du  royaume  d'ltalie  pendant  la  domination  franjaise;  Eugene  de 
Beauharnais,  Memoires  et  correspondance,  ed.  by  Du  Casse;  and  Melzi,  Memoire. 


Napoleoti's  biterjerence  in  the  Peni7isula.  .  201 

Oa  the  arrest  of  the  Pope,  see  Artaud,  Histoire  du  Pape  Pie  VII.;  Critineau-Joly, 
Mdmoires  du  Cardinal  Consalvi  ;  Pacca,  M^nioires  historiques  ;.  Coittbier,  M^- 
moires  du  G^n^ral  Radet,  and  Maury,  Correspondance  et  nidnioircs.  Ou  Holland, 
see  Jorissetiy  Napol^oa  I  et  le  roi  Louis ;  and  Louis  JJotLipatle,  Documents  his- 
toriques et  rdflexions  sur  le  gouvernetneut  de  la  HuUdnae.  On  Sv\edeu,  Svtderus, 
Schwedens  Politik  und  Kriege  (1808-1814).  On  the  Code,/a^,  Bonaparte  et  le 
Code  CiviL 


LECTURE   65. 


THE  OVERTHROW  OF  THE  POWER  OF  NAPOLEON. 

The  struggle  between  England  and  Napoleon  :  the  policies  repre- 
sented by  Castlereagh  (b.  1769,  d.  1822)  and  Canning  (b.  1770,  d.  1827), 
the  latter  desiring  to  raise  national  insurrections  against  Napoleon,  the 
former  to  make  coalitions  and  to  act  directly  against  the  French  with 
English  armies;  duel  between  Castlereagh  and  Canning  (21  Sept., 
1809);  Lord  Wellesley  (b.  1760,  d.  1842),  director  of  English  foreign 
policy  (1809-1812);  capture  by  the  English  of  the  remaining  colonial 
possessions  of  France  and  Holland,  Martinique  (23  Feb.,  1809),  Guade- 
loupe (6  Feb.,  1810)  and  the  Mauritius  (2  Dec,  1810),  and  Java  (18 
Sept.,  181 1). 

Napoleon's  resolution  to  attack  Portugal,  because  the  Prince- Regent 
declined  to  join  in  the  Continental  Blockade  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Fon- 
tainebleau  with  Spain  (27  Oct.,  1807)  he  arranged  for  the  division  of 
Portugal  ;  a  French  army  under  Junot  invaded  Portugal ;  flight  of  the 
Prince-Regent  to  Brazil;  Junot  entered  Lisbon  (30  Nov.,  1807), 
occupied  the  whole  of  Portugal,  and  declared  that  the  House  of  Bra- 
ganza  had  ceased  to  reign  (i  Feb.,  1808). 

Napoleon's  interference  in  the  affairs  in  Spain  :  the  people  of  Madrid 
attacked  Godoy,  the  Queen's  lover,  and  supported  Prince  Ferdinand, 
the  heir  to  the  throne  ;  the  royal  family  of  Spain  appealed  to  Napoleon 
and  proceeded  to  France  ;  Charles  IV.  ceded  his  throne  to  Napoleon, 
who  proclaimed  his  brother  Joseph,  King  of  Spain  (6  June,  1808);  a 
French  army  entered  Spain  to  support  Joseph  and  occupied  Madrid  ; 


202  Vimeiro,   Coriinna  and  Wagram. 

general  insurrection  of  the  Spaniards  ;  surrender  of  18,000  French 
soldiers  to  the  Spaniards  at  Baylen  (20  July,  1808);  the  English  minis- 
try assisted  the  Spanish  insurgents  with  money  and  arms. 

The  Portuguese  in  insurrection  against  the  French  ;  the  English  min- 
istry sent  an  army  to  their  help  under  Sir  Artitur  Wellesley  (b.  1769, 
d.  1852),  who  won  the  battles  of  Roliga  and  Vimeiro  (17,  21  Aug., 
1808);  by  the  Convention  of  Cintra  (30  Aug.)  Junot  agreed  to  evacuate 
Portugal. 

Napoleon  in  person  invaded  Spain,  and  occupied  Madrid  (4  Dec, 
1808);  Sir  John  Moore  (b.  1761,  d.  1809)  with  the  English  army  ad- 
vanced from  Portugal  to  Salamanca  to  save  Andalusia;  retreat  of  Sir 
John  Moore  to  Corunna  ;  battle  of  Corunna  (16  Jan.,  1809). 

The  difficulties  of  Napoleon  in  the  Peninsula  and  the  promise  of 
support  from  England  caused  the  Emperor  Francis  to  believe  the  time 
propitious  for  a  fresh  war  ;  unpopularity  of  the  French  in  Germany  ; 
Napoleon's  contempt  for  the  popular  feeling  against  him  ;  Stadion  (b. 
1763,  d.  1824),  who  had  become  State  Chancellor  of  Austria  in  1806, 
desired  to  make  Austria  the  representative  of  this  German  national  feel- 
ing ;  the  services  of  Gentz  (b.  1764,  d.  1832);  re-organization  of  the 
Austrian  army  by  the  Archduke  Charles. 

Campaign  of  1809  :  the  Archduke  Charles  invaded  Bavaria,  and  the 
Archduke  John,  Italy  ;  Napoleon  entered  Germany,  defeated  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  at  Abensberg  and  Eckmiihl  (20.  22  Apr.)  and  occupied 
Vienna  (13  May);  the  battle  of  Aspern  or  Essling  (21-22  May);  Na- 
poleon shut  up  in  the  island  of  Lobau  ;  the  Tyrolese  insurrection  under 
Hofer  ;  Napoleon,  joined  by  reinforcements,  defeated  the  Austrians  at 
Wagram  (6  July). 

By  the  treaty  of  Vienna  or  Schonbrunn  (14  Oct.,  1809)  Austria 
ceded  Trieste,  Carniola,  and  most  of  Croatia  to  Napoleon,  who  added 
these  districts  to  the  Illyrian  Provinces;  Austria  also  ceded  Salzburg  to 
Bavaria,  Northern  Galicia,  including  Cracow,  which  she  had  taken  in 
the  final  partition  of  Poland  in  1795,  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw, 
and  the  Circle  of  Tarnopol  in  Southern  Galicia  to  Russia. 

Causes  of  the  failure  of  Austria  to  arouse  German  national  feeling ; 
Stadion  suceeded  by  Metternich  (b.  1773,  d.  1859);  Napoleon  married 
to  the  Archduchess  Marie  Louise  (b.  1791,  d.  1847),  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Francis  (2  Apr.,  18 10). 


The  Reorgajiization  of  Prussia.  203 

The  English  ministry  resolved  to  pursue  the  war  vigorously  on  land 
against  Napoleon  ;  failure  of  the  expedition  to  Walcheren  (Aug.,  1809); 
successes  in  the  war  in  the  Peninsula  ;  gallant  defense  ot  Saragossa  by 
the  Spaniards  ;  though  the  Spanish  armies  were  defeated,  their  guerilla 
warfare  reduced  the  power  of  the  French  ;  Arthur  Wellesley,  afterwards 
Lord  Wellington,  placed  in  command  of  the  English  army  in  the  Pe- 
ninsula ;  his  capture  of  Oporto  (12  May,  1809);  his  victory  at  Talavera 
(27-28  July);  Wellington  held  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras  and  repulsed 
a  French  invasion  of  Portugal  under  Massena  (1810-1811)  ;  battles  of 
Fuentes  de  Onor  (5  May,  181 1),  and  Albuera  (16  May);  Wellington's 
capture  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  (19  Jan.,  1812),  and  Badajoz  (6  Apr.),  and 
defeat  of  Marmont  at  Salamanca  (22  July);  Joseph  Bonaparte  evacuated 
Madrid  (10  Aug.);  the  English  forced  to  retreat  from  Burgos  (21  Oct.), 
and  Joseph  recovered  Madrid  for  the  last  time  (2  Nov.). 

The  growth  of  the  national  spirit  in  Germany  :  the  Germans  looked 
to  Prussia  to  lead  them  ;  the  Tugenbund. 

The  re-organization  of  Prussia  :  the  ministry  of  Stein  (b.  1757,  d. 
1831)  ;  he  abolished  serfdom  and  introduced  other  reforms;  the  war 
ministry  of  Scharnhorst  (b.  1755,  d.  18 13);  he  passed  the  youth  of 
Prussia  through  the  army,  and  in  the  place  of  conscription  adopted 
universal  military  service  ;  Napoleon  obtained  the  dismissal  of  Stein 
(24  Nov.,  1808)  and  of  Scharnhorst  (June,  18 10);  the  ministry  of  Har- 
denberg  (1810-1822);  he  completed  the  work  of  Stein  by  making  the 
former  serfs  owners  of  their  holdings  (14  Sept.,  181 1)  ;  foundation  of 
the  University  of  Berlin  (18 10);  assistance  rendered  by  William  von 
Humboldt  (b.  1767,  d.  1835);  Frederick  William  III.  forced  to  sign  an 
ofifensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Napoleon  (24  Feb.,  18 12). 

Growing  disagreement  between  Napoleon  and  the  Tsar  Alexander : 
its  causes  ;  Napoleon's  resolution  to  invade  Russia  ;  Castlereagh,  who 
returned  to  office  (28  Feb.,  1812),  offered  to  aid  Russia  ;  through  Eng- 
lish mediation  Russia  made  peace  with  the  Turks  at  Bucharest  (28 
May,  181 2)  ;  Russia  signed  the  Treaty  of  Abo  with  Sweden  (5  Apr., 
1 81 2)  by  which  Bernadotte  promised  to  aid  Russia  against  Napoleon 
and  to  cede  Finland  in  exchange  for  Norway. 

Outbreak  of  war  between  England  and  the  United  States  (18  June, 
1812). 


204  Overthrow  of  Napoleo?i. 

Campaign  of  1812  :  Napoleou  invaded  Russia  (May);  retreat  of  the 
Russians;  battle  of  Borodino  (7  Sept.);  Napoleon  occupied  Moscow 
(14  Sept  )  ;  the  retreat  from  Moscow  ;  almost  complete  destruction  of 
the  French  army. 

Campaign  of  18 13  :  during  the  retreat  from  Moscow  the  Prussian  con- 
tingent under  York  abandoned  the  French  army  (30  Dec,  18 12)  ; 
Prussia  declared  war  against  France  (16  Mar.,  1813);  Napoleon  rallied 
his  army  and  won  the  battles  of  Liitzen  (2  May)  and  Bautzen  (20  May); 
Austria  signed  the  Convention  of  Reichenbach  (27  June),  and  promised 
to  join  the  Allies,  if  Napoleon  refused  the  terms  offered  to  him  ;  Congress 
of  Prague;  Austria  declared  war  against  Napoleon  (12  Aug.);  the 
French  under  Oudinot  and  Macdonald  defeated  by  Bernadotte  and 
Bliicher  (b.  1742,  d.  18 19)  at  Gross-Beeren  and  the  Katzbach  (23,  25 
Aug.);  Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Dresden  (26-27  ^ug.) ;  sur- 
render of  Vandamme  to  the  Russians  at  Kulm  (30  Aug.);  the  Treaty  of 
Toplitz  between  Austria  and  Bavaria  (19  Sept.)  ;  Bavaria  and  Wiirtem- 
berg  deserted  Napoleon  ;  great  defeat  of  the  French  at  Leipzig  (16-19 
Oct.);  defeat  of  the  Bavarians  at  Hanau  (30  Oct.);  Napoleon  withdrew 
from  Germany  ;  general  rising  of  the  Germans  against  the  French. 

Campaign  of  18 13  in  the  Peninsula  :  Wellington  defeated  the  French 
at  Vittoria  (21  June)  and  invaded  France  (7  Oct.). 

The  allied  armies  reach  the  Rhine  ;  negotiations  with  Napoleon  ; 
the  Proposals  of  Frankfort  (9  Nov.,  18 13)  ;  attitude  towards  Napoleon 
and  France  of  the  Tsar  Alexander,  Metternich  and  Castlereagh. 

Campaign  of  1 8 14  in  France:  the  Allies  invaded  France  (31  Dec,  1813); 
Napoleon's  victories  ;  the  Congress  of  Chatillon  (3  Feb.-i9  Mar.)  ; 
Frederick  VI.  of  Denmark  ceded  Norway  to  Sweden  in  exchange  for 
Swedish  Pomerania  by  the  Treaty  of  Kiel  (14  Jan.)  ;  the  Dutch  insur- 
rection ;  Carnot's  defence  of  Antwerp  ;  the  position  in  Italy  ;  Eugene 
de  Beauharnais  remained  faithful,  but  Murat  negotiated  with  the  Allies; 
the  English  under  Bentinck  occupied  Genoa  (21  Apr.)  ;  attitude  of 
France  towards  Napoleon ;  the  nation  refused  to  rise  in  his  defense ; 
the  Allies  signed  the  Treaty  of  Chaumont  (i  Mar.);  Napoleon's  last 
battles;  the  Allies  occupied  Paris  (31  Mar.);  abdication  of  Napoleon  at 
Fontainebleau  (6  Apr.). 

Causes  of  the  fall  of  Napoleon. 


The  Restoration.  205 

Authorities :  On  Napoleon's  interference  in  Spain  and  Portugal  and  on  the 
history  of  the  Peninsular  War,  the  best  small  book  is  Shand,  The  War  in  the  Pen- 
insula ;  see  Murat,  Murat  en  Espagne  ;  Du  Casse,  M^moires  et  Correspondance  du 
Roi  Joseph  ;  Wellington,  Despatches  ;  Napier,  History  of  the  Peninsular  War ; 
Toreno,  Historia  del  levantamieuto,  guerra  y  revolucion  de  Espaiia  ;  and  Gomez  de 
Arteche,  Reinado  del  Carlos  IV.,  and  Guerra  della  ludependencia ;  for  the  campaign 
of  Wagram,  see  Pelei,  M^moires  sur  la  guerre  de  1809;  Hormayr,  Gcschichte  An- 
dreas Hofer,  and  Angeliy  Erzherzog  Carl  von  CEsterreich  als  Feldherr  und  Heeres- 
organisator  ;  for  the  reorganization  of  Prussia,  see  Seeley,  Life  of  Stein  ;  Periz,  Das 
Leben  des  Ministers  Freiherrn  vom  Stein  ;  Ranke,  Denkwiirdigkeiten  des  Fiirsten 
von  Hardenberg  ;  Cavaignac,  Formation  de  la  Prusse  contemporaine,  vol.  2, ;  Stem, 
Abhandlungen  und  Aktenstiicke  zur  Geschichte  der  preussischen  Reformzeit ;  and 
Lehtnann,  Scharnhorst,  Der  Tugenbund,  and  Knesebeck  und  Schon  ;  for  Napo- 
leon's campaign  in  Russia,  see  Segur,  Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  Grande  Arm^e 
pendant  I'annde  1812  ;  for  the  campaign  in  Germany  of  1813,  and  the  rising  of  Ger- 
many against  Napoleon,  see  Berlin,  Campagne  de  1813  ;  Droysen,  Das  Leben  des 
Grafen  York  von  Wartenburg  ;  Pertz,  Das  Leben  des  Grafen  Neithardt  von 
Gneisenau  ;  Oncken,  CEsterreich  und  Preussen  im  Befreiungskriege;  Droysen,  Vor- 
lesungen  iiber  die  Freiheitskriege  ;  for  the  Dutch  insurrection  bqq  Juste,  Le  souleve- 
ment  de  la  Hollande  en  1813 ;  for  the  defensive  campaign  of  1814  in  France,  see 
Houssaye,  1814;  Didot,  Royautd  ou  Empire  :  la  France  en  1814  ;  Berlin,  La  Cam- 
pagne de  1814 ;  and  Fain^  Manuscrit  de  1814  ;  and  for  the  diplomatic  proceedings  of 
the  period,  Alison,  Lives  of  Lord  Castlereagh  and  Sir  Charles  Stewart;  Castlereagh^ 
Correspondence  ;  Mettemich,  Memoirs ;  and  Vitrolles,  M^moires. 


LECTURE  66 


THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA. 

The  abdication  of  Napoleon  was  followed  by  the  Provisional  Treaty 
of  Paris  (11  April,  18 14)  assigning  to  him  the  island  of  Elba  and  an 
income,  and  to  the  Empress  Marie  Louise  the  duchies  of  Parma  and 
Piacenza, 

The  provisional  government  of  France  under  the  guidance  of  Talley- 
rand accepted  Louis  XVIII.  as  King  ;  on  his  arrival  he  issued  the  De- 
claration ol  Saint-Ouen  (2  May),  promising  representative  government, 
liberty  of  worship  and  of  the  press,  responsibility  of  ministers,  guaran- 


y^ 


206  Tiie  Congress  of  Vienna. 

tee  of  property  acquired  during  the  Revolution,  etc.,  which  were  after- 
wards embodied  in  the  Charter  (4  June,  18 14).  ^Irtr-v'-t^ 

By  the  First  Treaty  of  Paris  (3c  May,  18 14)  Fran(^^s  reduced  to  the 
limits  of  1792,  with  the  addition  of  AvignonfaSd  other  districts  within 
these  limits,  and  of  part  of  Savoy  ;  she  received  back  all  her  colonies, 
except  the  Mauritius,  Saint  Lucia  and  Tobagcvwhich  were  ceded  to 
England,  ^/^t.^i^t.c.^^  x^^^t.*-^   c^    ^    /  7  f  2-   zul6e::j^ ^ ^tJ^i^^ 

It  was  agreed  that  a  congress  of  representatives  of  the  states  of  Eu- 

rope  should  be  held  at  Vienna  to  dispose  of  the  territories  on  the  left 

bank  of  the  Rhine,  taken  from  Frani^e,  and  in  generaLto  settle  the 

.affairs  of  Europe,  ^^n^ti:^:^/)  {C2^^  -^-^  "^ 

.*)^|^2^^  The  Congress  of  Vienna  met^n  i  I\ov.   1814 ;  it  was  attended  by 

*^^^nrast  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  those  who  were  not  present  sent 

^t>^jpedal  envoys.    ^^II^^tT-.   ^^^^T"  (,*2:^X>5?t:&to 

The  most  important  ambassadors  were  Metternicb^foi  Austri^Hard- O^ 

l^enberg  for  Prussia,   Castlereagh  for   England,   and   Razumovski  and 

m^-^'^^Sesselrode  for    Russia  ;    these  representatives  of  the   four  victorious 

powers  arrogated  to  themselves  the  right  to  arrange  the  decisions  of  the 

Congress.  ^  i.xjJ'j*^^  •g  -C^.*^*.^  gu*-*^^-^^  , 

,»A£((jUjA<?^rival  of  Talleyrand  as  the  representative  of  Fran  re  ;  hi.^  great  diplo- 

^L^ynatTc  campaign  ;  he  stood  forth  as  the  advocate  of  leffitimacy.  and  as 

(f      ^  the  defender  of  smaller  powers  ;  he  adroitly  made  u^e  of  the  dissensions 

beUveen  the  four  Treat  powers.  CA^>^^:^ft^-'t(^^^^^ 

The  chief  political  questions  at  issue  :  (i)  tire  Tsar  Alexander  de- 
sired the  whole  of  Poland  and  Frederick  William  TIT   of  Prussia  the 
whole  of  Saxony,  whose  king  had  remained  faithful  to  Napoleon  ;  (2) 
•^•'^^'Tilie  disposition  of  the  territories  on  the  left  baj^^  of  the  Rhine  ;  (3)  the 
/ij*^   treatment  of  Italy,  especially  of  Murgt,  wno  had  abandoned  Napoleon: 
^■'^^^ Talleyrand's  attitude  upon  these  questio^S-^  a-^.^^-*-*-^  ^r^^^^cr*^. 
In  order  to  oppose  the  claims  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  Austria,  Eng- 
land and  France  signed  a  secret  treaty  of  alliance  (3  Jan.,  1815). 

Eventually  it  was  settled  that  Prussia  should  receive  Eusatia,  being 
about  two-fifths  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  Russia  the  greater  part 
of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  including  the  city  of  Warsaw  ;  Prussia 
recovered  from  the  Grand  Duchy  the  province  of  Posen,  with  Thorn 
and  Dantzig,  while  Austria  recovered  the  Circle  of  Tamopol  in  Southern 
Galicia,  and  Cracow  was  madeaTree  stater,  ^a-'^p^-cx.  ^tUA^c^-x^c/)  >f- 


The  Co7igress  of  Vienna.  207 

^^y^  In  order  to  establish  strong  powers  upon  the  Rhine  to  curb  France, 
i>*Holland  and  Belgium  were  united  as  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
.^^''^and  granted  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  was  also  made  Grand  Duke 
of  Luxemburg  ;  the  districts  comprising  the  former  electorates  of 
Treves  and  Cologne,  etc.,  were  granted  to  Prussia  ;  the  districts  farther 
south  to  Bavaria,  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Salzburg  and  the 
Tyrol,  and  the  fortress  of  Mayence  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  to  be  garri- 
soned by  the  Germanic  Confederation.  -v.  ^  ^t»vt^ 

The  re-arrangement  of  Italy  :  Lombardy  and  Venetia  were  given  to 
Austria  ;  Genoa  was  added  to  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia,  in  which  the 
succession  was  fixed  in  the  Carignano  line  ;  Tuscany  and  Modena  were 
restored  to  their  former  rulers,  both  Austrian  princes  ;  Parma,  Piacenza 
and  Guastalla  were  given  to  the  Empress  Marie  Louise  for  her  life,  with 
succession  to  the  rightful  heir,  who  was  for  the  time  made  Grand  Duke  of 
Lucca  ;  the  States  of  the  Church  were  restored  to  the  Pope,  and  the  ques- 
tion of  retaining  Murat  on  the  throne  of  Naples  remained  unsettled  until 
he  defied  Austria  and  endeavored  to  summon  Italy  to  arms  ;  after  the 
defeat  of  Murat  at  Tolentino  (3  May,  1815)  Naples  was  restored  to  Fer- 
dinand IV.,  who  took  the  title  of  Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
The  districts  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  which  Napoleon 
had  governed  as  the  lUyrian  Provinces,  were  annexed  by  Austria. 

In  the  North,  Sweden  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Norway, 
ceded  to -her  by  Denmark  by  the  Treaty  of  Kiel,  but  Denmark  lost 
Swedish  Pomerania  and  received  instead  the  Duchy  of  Lauenburg. 

In  Germany,  Prussia  regained  her  acquisitions  of  1803,  with  Swedish 
Pomerania,  the  greater  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia,  and  Rhenish 
Prussia  ;  Hanover  received  East  Friesland  and  other  districts;  and  the 
mediatization  of  the  petty  states  of  Germany  was  maintained. 
JL^  ^  England,  in  addition  to  the  colonial  gains  made  by  the  Treaty  of 
^^,>^Amiens,  retained  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Mauritius,  Malta,  Heligo- 
land, and  the  Ionian  Islands,  but  restored  Martinique  to  the  French 
and  Java  to  the  Dutch  ;  Castlereagh's  chief  preoccupation  at  Vienna 
was,  however,  to  secure  the  abolition  of  the  negro  slave  trade. 

Peace  signed  between  England  and  the  United  States  at  Ghent  (24 
Dec,  1814).    >1  J^- '"-Tf^^Vfe^ 


ic,  i«i4).    -y^.     lJUy/t.>CXi->^' 

Before  its  w^ork  wa^completed,  the  Congress  of  Vienna  was  startled 


205  The  Hundred  Days, 

by  the  news  that  Napoleon  had  left  Elba  and  was  again  masterof  France  ; 
it,  therefore,  hurried  through  the  rest  of  its  work  by  reorganizing  Ger- 
i. .    many  and  Switzerland. 
^'^"^^i  The  Germanjc  Confederatioji  took  the  place  of  the  Confederation^  of 
fKTi'Oii^  Rhine  ;   it  consisted  of  thirty -five  stages,   in  addition  to  Austria, 
\^^     Prussia,  Denmark  and  the  Netherlands,  namely  :  the  four  kingdoms  of 
;.-*4r^ Bavaria,  Hanover,  Saxony  and  Wiirtemberg,  the  seven  grand  duchies 
of  Baden,  Hesse-Cassel  or  Electoral  Hesse,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,   Mecklenburg- Strelitz,   Oldenburg,   and  Saxe- Weimar, 
nine  duchies,  eleven  principalities,  and  the  four  free  cities  of  Bremen, 
Frankfort,  Hamburg  and  Liibeck  ;  the  aflfairs  of  the  Confederation  were 
entrusted  to  a  Diet  (Bundestag^  presided  over  by  Austna  and  consist- 
ing of  an  Ordinary  Assembly  of  seventeen  and  a  General  Assembly  of 
siijcty-niue  members. 

'^^^...^^i^L^-^fe^^^'-^^ti^^i^'^^^  guaranteed  neutrality  by  the  powers  of 
E)uxop.e  ;  three  new  cantons,  Geneva,  Neufchatel  and  the  Valais  were 
added  ;  entire  independence'  was  given  to  the  individual  cantons  and 
presidency  of  the  FgitoaLJIiet  was  reserved  to  Zurich,  Berne  and  Lu- 
I  .    cernejn  turn. 
myW^^-z^mportan^-e  of  the  jEQtk  of  the  CongressjoUiZiemia  ;  it  showed  a  re- 
on  to.  i^th  'cejitury  ideas  in  trampUng  on.  the  ideas. of  natiQiialit:^^nd 
the  sovereignty  of  the  people.  ^^^^jt^*^'^/^^- 

y*J^  The  story  of  the  Hundred  Days  :  unpopularity  and  unms^cotfiduct 
jZr^  of  Louis  XVIII.;  return  of  French  prisoners  of  war  from  Germany  and 
\^  Russia;  Napoleon  escaped  from  Elba  and  landed  in  France  (i  Mar., 
1 8 15);  he  reached  Paris  (20  Mar.);  flight  of  Louis  XVIII.;  Napoleon 
promised  to  establish  representative  institutions  ;  the  Additional  Act 
(23  Apr.);  his  endeavors  to  raise  France  against  the  Allies  ;  defeated  by 
the  English  and  Prussians  at  Waterloo  (18  June);  surrender  of  Napo- 
leon to  Captain  Maitland  (15  July);  sent  to  St.  Helena;  the  Allied 
armies  occupied  Paris  (6  July);  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII. 

By  the  vSecond  Treaty  of  Paris  (20 Nov.,  1815)  France  lost  the  part  of 
Savoy  granted  to  her  in  1814  and  other  rectifications  of  her  frontier; 
she  had  to  restore  to  their  former  owners  the  works  of  art  accumulated 
in  Paris  ;  she  was  forced  to  pay  a  war  contribution  of  700,000.000  francs 
and  to  maintain  an  army  of  150,000  troops  of  the  Allies  in  possession  of 
her  eastern  fortresses  for  five  years. 


The  Holy  Alliance.  209 

Authorities :  For  the  history  and  acts  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  see  Flassan^ 
Histoire  du  Congres  dc  Vienne  ;  Kliiber^  Akten  des  Wiener  Congresses  ;  Angeberg^ 
Le  Congres  de  Vienne  et  les  Traitds  de  1815 ;  De  Pradt,  I^e  Congrds  de  Vienne; 
Lagatde,  Fetes  et  souvenirs  du  Congres  de  Vienne  ;  Sorel,  Les  Trait^s  de  1815 ; 
Schoell,  Recueil  de  pieces  officielles  relatives  au  Congres  de  Vienne  ;  Talleyrand^ 
M^moires ;  Pallain,  Correspondance  iu^dite  du  Prince  de  Talleyrand  et  du  Roi 
Louis  XVIII.  pendant  le  Congres  de  Vienne  ;  Metiernich,  Memoirs  ;  Alison,  Lives 
of  Lord  Castlereagh  and  Sir  Charles  Stewart  ;  Castlereagb,  Correspondence  ;  Wel- 
lington, Supplementary  Despatches ;  Ranke,  Hardenberg ;  Miinster,  Depeschen 
vom  Wiener  Congress  ;  Pidet,  Biographie,  travaux  et  correspondance  de  C.  Pictet 
de  Rochemont,  and  Pozzo  di  Borgo,  Correspondance.  For  the  Hundred  Days» 
see  the  books  on  Napoleon  already  cited,  with  Ho  us  say e,  1815  ;  Constant,  Me- 
moires  sur  les  Cent  Jours  ;  Vitrolles,  Memoires  ;  and  Rochechouart,  Souvenirs  ; 
and  for  the  campaign  of  Waterloo,  Siborne,  History  of  the  War  in  France  and  Bel- 
gium in  1815  ;  Ropes,  The  Campaign  of  Waterloo  ;  Gardner,  Waterloo  ;  Chesney^ 
Waterloo  Lectures  ;  Ollech,  Geschichte  des  FeldzUges  von  1815  ;  La  Tour  d'  Au- 
vergne,  Waterloo  ;  and  Charras,  Histoire  de  la  campagne  de  1815.         ^ 


LECTURE  6 


^  1> 


THE  HOLY  ALLIANCE.  i^^^  u^^^^^ 

After  the  signature  of  the  Second  Treaty  of  Parjs^e  Tsar  Alexander 
of  Russia,  influenced  by  Madame  de  Krudfiner^proposed  the  formation 
of  a  Holy  Alliance  declaring  the  obligation^  of  nionarchs  to  the  Chris- 
tian religion;  it  was  signed  by  the  Emperor  Francis  of  Austi:ia  and  Kfag 
Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia  (26  Sept. ,  j8.i^l,  but  got  by  the  Prince 
Regent  of  England  ;  the  objects  and  aims,  secret  and"avowed,  of  the 
Holy  Alliance. 

Metternich  recognized  as  the  leading  statesman  of  the  Holy  Alliance  ; 
his  fear  of  democratic  principles  greater  than  his  attachment  to  religion; 
his  intimacy  with  Castlereagh  ;  he  proposed  to  preserve  the  neace^of 
Europe  and  the  force  of  government  by  frequent  congresses  of  repre- 
sentatives  of  the  Great  Powers,  which  should  consult  and  act  together. 

Metternich's  Austrian  policy  the  reverse  of  that  of  Joseph  II.;  he  be- 
lieved in  maintaining  authority  by  preserving  the  diversity  of  language 
and  law  in  the  different  provinces  of  the  Austrian  Empire. 


2IO  Europe^  181^-1820. 

The  internal  policy  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  I.:  his  attempt  to  establish 
constitutional  government  as  King  of  Poland  and  Grand  Duke  of  Fin- 
land;  his  friendship  with  Adam  Czartor^ski  (b.  1770,  d.  1861),  and 
other  Polish  patriots ;  his  interest  in  the  Eastern  Question,  and  desire 
to  overthrow  the  power  of  the  Turks  ;  he  encouraged  the  Greeks,  espe- 
cially through  Capo  d'Istria,  in  their  desire  for  independence. 

The  government  of  Louis  XVIII.  in  France  :  the  system  of  the  Char- 
ter ;  establishment  of  responsible  government  on  the  English  model ; 
the  two  Chambers ;  the  two  parties,  Royalists  and  Constitutionalists  ; 
suppression  of  the  liberty  of  the  press  ;  repression  of  the  partisans  of  the 
Revolution  ;  the  White  Terror  ;  the  first  administration  of  the  Due  de 
elieu  (i 815-18 1 8). 

The  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  agreement  of  the  Allies  to  evacuate 
France  (9  Oct.,  18 18). 

The  spread  of  constitutional  principles  in  Germany  :  indignation  of     /i 
the  Young  German  party  at  the  refusal  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  to  ' n^b 
recognize  the  principle  of  nationality  or  the  establishment  of  represent-  Q 
ative  institutions  ;  the  spirit  of  the  universities  ;  the  Burschenschaft. 

Certain  German  rulers,  notably  the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtem- 
berg  and  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Baden  and  Saxe- Weimar,  granted  repre- 
sentative constitutions  to  their  states;  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia 
had  promised  a  constitution  in  18 15  and  took  steps  in  that  direction 
in  1818  ;  the  work  of  William  von  Humboldt ;  Metternich's  opposi-  a 
tion  to  the  liberal  movement  in  (^^xx^xxy.p' /^i^.scJt^tr-i   '^  "*^Li  /^V --^^'-^^^-'^ 

Th^  murder  of  Kntzehne  ("23  Mar.,  1819)  ;  its  effecfon  Germany; 
Frederick  William  III.  dismissed  Humboldt  and  did  not  issue  his 
promised  constitution  ;  riots  in  Germany  ;  Metternich  took  advantage 
of  these  risings  to  oppose  liberal  ideas;  the  Congress  of  Carlsbad 
(Aug.,  1819)  ;  the  Final  Act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (15  May,  1820), 
strengthening  the  power  of  the  Diet  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  to 
interfere  in  the  different  states  ;  the  police  measures  taken  against  Ger- 
man liberalism. 

The  demand  for  representative  institutions  and  for  the  recognition  of 
liberal  principles  stigmatized  by  Metternich  as  Jacobinism  ;  the  Holy 
Alliance,  including  the  Tsar  Alexander,  induced  to  declare  against 
liberalism. 


Insurrectio7is  in  Spain  and  Italy.  211 

Secret  societies  formed  by  the  supporters  of  liberal  principles  all  over 
Europe,  in  relation  with  each  other  ;  in  Germany  and  in  Italy  their 
cause  associated  with  the  spirit  of  nationality. 
^"^^  Insurrection  in  Spain  (1820)  caused  by  the  reactionary  government  of 
Ferdinand  VII.;  the  Spanish  colonies  in  Central  and  South  America 
were  fighting  for  their  independence  ;  San  Martin,  Francia,  Bolivar  and 
Iturbide  ;  the  Spaniards  demanded  the  Constitution  of  1812  ;  Ferdinand 
VII.  appeared  to  yield,  but  appealed  for  help  against  his  people  to  the 
Holy  Alliance ;  Catalonia  and  Navarre  opposed  to  the  reforms  of  the 
Cortes. 

The  situation  in  Italy  :  policy  of  the  Italian  governments  ;  restoration 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  by  the  Pope  (7  Aug.,  1814)  ;  the  movement  for 
reform,  both  democratic  and  national  ;  the  Carbonari ;  Pepe  (b.  1783, 
d.  1855)  seized  Naples  (July,  1820)  and  forced  Ferdinand  I.  to  adopt  a 
liberal  constitution  ;  democratic  rising  in  Piedmont  (Mar.,  1821);  part 
played  by  Charles  Albert,  Prince  of  Carignano  ;  abdication  of  Victor 
Emmanuel  I.,  King  of  Sardinia. 

Metternich  laid  the  question  of  the  liberal  movement  in  Italy  before 
a  congress  of  the  powers  at  Troppau  (Oct.-Dec,  1820J  and  at  Laybach 
(J an. -May,  182 1);  Austria  authorized  to  interfere  ;  suppression  of  the 
liberal  movements  in  Naples  and  Piedmont  by  Austrian  troops.  Q\ 

Suicide  of  Castlereagh  (12  Aug.,  1822);   succeeded  by  CangiilJ^^fe^Xc« 
Englisn  foreign  minister;   Canning's  liberal  ideas  and  dislike  of  Met-        v 
ternich;    Castlereagh's   death  the  first  blow  at  the  solidarity  of  the 
Great  Powers  in  the  system  of  governing  Europe  by  congresses. 

.Attitude  of  France  towards  the  other  powers ;  policy  of  Louis  XVIII.; 
administration  of  Decazes  (1818-20)  and  of  Richelieu  (1820-21) ;  forma- 
tion of  an  ultra-Royalist  ministry  under  Villele  (15  Dec,  T821). 

Meeting  of  the  Congress  of  Verona  (Oct.,  1822),  summoned  to  deal 
with  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Spain  ;  attitude  taken  by  Canning, 
who  declared  the  intention  of  England  to  recognize  the  independence  of 
the  South  American  republics  and  warned  the  powers  not  to  interfere 
in  Portugal  ;  the  Congress  requested  France  to  re-establish  the  authority 
of  Ferdinand  VII. 

A  French  army  invaded  Spain  C7  Apr.,  1823),  occupied  Madrid  (19 
May)  and  suppressed  the  Constitutional  party  in  Spain  ;  unpopularity 


212  Disruption  of  the  Holy  Alliance. 

of  this  action  among  the  French  liberals ;  plots  formed  against  the 
Bourbons. 

Death  of  Louis  XVIII.  (i6  Sept.,  1824);  accession  of  his  brother, 
the  Comte  d'Artois,as  Charles  X.  (b.  1757,  d.  1836);  his  ultra- Royalist 
ideas  ;  Villele  retained  in  power. 

Death  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  I.  (i  "Dec,  1825)  ;  the  character 
of  his  influence  on  European  politics  since  the  Congress  of  Vienna ; 
the  Holy  Alliance  broken  up  by  his  death  ;  determination  of  his  suc- 
cessor, Nicholas  I.,  to  carry  out  his  own  policy  without  consulting 
the  other  powers ;  Metternich  remained  the  director  of  the  policy  of 
Austria  and  Prussia,  but  England,  owing  to  the  death  of  Castlereagh, 
and  Russia,  owing  to  the  death  of  Alexander,  were  no  longer  submis- 
sive to  his  leadership. 

Authorities :  For  the  diplomatic  history  of  this  period,  see  Debidour,  Histoire 
diplomatique  de  I'Europe  ;  Seignobos,  Histoire  poHtique  de  I'Kurope  contempo- 
raine  (1814-96)  ;  Fyffe,  History  of  Modern  Europe  :  Stern,  Geschichte  Europas, 
seit  1815  ;  Muhlenbecky  ]&tudes  sur  les  origines  de  la  Samte- Alliance ;  Metternich, 
Memoirs  ;  Mazade,  Un  Chancelier  d'Ancien  Regime,  regne  diplomatique  de  M,  de 
Metternich  \  Castlereagh^  Correspondence;  Canning,  Speeches ;  Stapleton,  Political 
Life  of  George  Canning,  and  Canning  and  hisTimes  ;  De  Maistre,  Memoires  poht- 
iques  et  correspondance  diplomatique  ;  Pozzo  di  Borgo,  Correspondance  diploma- 
tique ;  Maggiolo,  Pozzo  di  Borgo  ;  and  Ranke,  Hardenberg ;  for  special  Congresses, 
see  De  Pradt^  L' Europe  apres  le  Congres  d'Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  Le  Coogres  de 
Carlsbad ;  Bignon,  Le  Congres  de  Troppau  ;  and  Chateaubriand,  Le  Congres  de 
Verone ;  for  the  history  of  the  Restoration  in  France,  see  Viel-Castel,  Histoire  de 
la  Restauration;  Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  Histoire  du  gouvernement  parlementaire 
en  France  (1814-48)  ;  Dulaure  and  Augtds,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  depuis  1814 
jusq'ai83o;  Cisternes,  Le  due  de  Richelieu  (1818-21);  Crousaz-Cretet,  Le  due 
de  Richelieu  ;  Rochechouart,  Souvenirs  ;  Hyde  de  Nouville,  Memoires  ;  Barante^ 
Souvenirs ;  Pasqider,  Memoires ;  -^^^Discours  ;  Marcellus,  Souvenirs  diploma- 
tiques;  Ferrand,  Memoires:  smd^  Vitiate.  Mdmoires ;  for  Germany,  see  Gervinus, 
Geschichte  des  Neunzehuten  Jahrhunderts  ;  Treitschke,  Deutsche  Geschichte  im 
Neunzehnten  Jahrhundert ;  Pfister,  Konig  Friedrich  von  Wiirtemberg  und  seine 
Zeit;  on  Italy,  see  Bianchi,  Storia  documentata  della  diplomazia  Europea  in 
Italia  ;  Nisco,  Storia  d'ltalia  (1815-30)  ;  Stillman,  The  Union  of  Itaiy  (1815-95); 
Tivaroni,  Storia  critica  del  Risorgimento  Italiano  ;  Colletta,  Istoria  di  Reame  di 
Napoli  ;  Pepe,  Relation  des  ^venements  politiques  et  militaires  de  Naples  en  1820 
et  182 1,  and  Memoires  historiques,  politiques,  et  militaires  sur  la  revolution  du 
royaume  de  Naples  ;  and  Costa  de  Beauregard,  La  jeunesse  du  roi  Charles  Albert ; 


The  Easteryi  Question.  213 

for  Spain,  see  Hubbard,  Histoire  contemporaine  de  I'Espagne  ;  Hugo,  Histoire  de 
la  guerre  d'Espagne  en  1823 ;  and  Mariignac,  Essai  historique  sur  la  revolution 
d'Espagnc  ;  and  for  Russia,  Fordy  Life  and  Letters  of  Madame  de  Kriidener  ;  La 
correspondance  entre  le  Tsar  Alexandre  et  le  Prince  Adam  Czartoryski  ;  Schnitz- 
ler  Histoire  intime  de  la  Russie  sous  les  Empereurs  Alexandre  et  Nicolas ;  Bern- 
hardt, Geschichte  Russlands  und  der  europaischeu  Politik  ;  and  Korff,  Av^ne- 
ment  au  trone  de  I'Ecipereur  Nicolas  I. 


LECTURE  68. 


THE  EASTERN  QUESTION:    THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  GREECE. 

The  importance  of  the  Eastern  question  in  the  history  of  Europe  dur- 
ing the  19th  century  ;  owing  to  the  extinction  of  Poland,  it  becomes 
practically  a  Turkish  question  ;££n gland  and  Austria  have  devoted 
themselves  to  checking  the  disruption  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  which  it 
has  been  the  traditional  policy  of  Russia  to  promote?)  yo^^>-6---^  a^Tv^  ^^ 

The  position  of  the  Turks  at  the  time  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  J^  ^^ 
^linetef-th^  old  Muhammadan  fanaticism  and  energy  ;  influence  of  the  's^^ 
Phanariot  Greek  families  ;  the  government  of  the  Sultan  Mahmud  II.       ^ 
(1808-30);   quasi- independence    in   Egypt   attained   by   Mehemet   AH 
(b.  1769,  d.  1849)  after  his  destruction  of  the  Mamelukes  (181 1);  the 
power  of  AH  Pasha  of  Janina  (b.  1741,  d.  1822)  in  Albania  ;  discontent 
of  the  Christian  populations   under  Turkish  rule,  of  the  Romanian  in- 
habitants of  the  Danubian  provinces  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  of  the 

Vrinr^iiniiiirection  of  the  Servians  under  Kara  George  (1804)  ;  recog- 
nition of  independence  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  (28  May,  18 12)  ;  the 
Turks  nevertheless  reconquered  Servia  and  expelled  Kara  George  ;  the 
second  Servian  insurrection  under  Milosch  Obrenovitch  (i8i5'> ;  murder 
of  Kara  George  (July,  181 7)  ;  Milosch  Obrenovitch  declared  himself 
Prince  of  Servia  (6  Nov.  1817). 

Condition  of  the  Danubian  provinces  ;  loss  of  Bessarabia  by  the  Treaty 
of  Bucharest ;  continued  government  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  by 
Hospodars  appointed  from  the  Phanariot  Greek  families  of  Constant!- 


214  The  Greek  hisurrection, 

\J 
nople  ;  failure  of  the  attempt  of  Alexander  Ypsilanti.to  raise  an  insur- 
rection on  behalf  of  the  Greeks  among  the  Romanians  (1821)  ;  absence 
of  sympathy  between  Greeks  and  Romanians  ;  appointment  by  the 
Sultan  of  two  Romanian  boyars  or  nobles,  John  Stourza  and  Gregory 
Ghica,  as  Hospodars  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  (1822). 

The  Greek  insurrection  (1821)  ;  encouraged,  but  not  openly,  by  the 
Tsar  Alexander  I.  ;  his  friendship  for  Capo  d'Istria  (b.  1776)  ;  gallan- 
try of  the  Greek  insurgents ;  Metternich  declared  against  assisting 
them  ;  Alexander,  therefore,  dismissed  Capo  d'Istria  from  office  (1822)  ; 
strong  feeling  among  the  educated  classes  in  England  and  France  in 
favor  of  the  Greeks  ;  many  volunteers,  including  Byron,  went  to  their 
0  Q>^  assistance ;  large  loans  raised  for  them  in  England;  "Seath  of  Byron 
>^  (19  Apr.  1824)  ;  arrival  of  an  Egyptian  army  under  Ibrahim  Pasha, 
sent  by  Mehemet  Ali  at  the  request  of  the  Sultan  (March,  1S25). 

Change   caused  in  the  attitude  of  Russia  towards  the  Eastern  Ques- 
tion by  the  accession  of  Nicholas  ;  his  resolution  to  promote  Russian 
I      interests  in  Turkey  without  consulting  the  other  powers  ;  agreement  of 
l^^t^^icholas  with  Canning  to  force  the  Turks  to  recognize  the  independ- 
1^'   ence  of  Greece  (4  Apr.,   1826) ;   increased  sympathy  for  the   Greeks 
aroused  by  the  atrocities  of  the  Turks  at  the  capture  of  Missolonghi 
(22  Apr.,  1826)  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Ackerman  with  Russia  (7  Oct.,  1826) 
the  Sultan  agreed  to  appoint  local  boyars,  elected  by  the  local  divans, 
for  a  term  of  seven  years  as  Hospodars  or  princes  of  the  two  Danubian 
provinces,  who  could  not  be  removed  without  the  consent  of  the  Tsar, 
and  to   recognize   the   quasi-independence   of  Servia   under   Turkish 
suzerainty. 

Canning,  prime  minister  of  England  (jo  Apr  ,  tS?;;:)^;  Capo  d'Istria 
elected  President  of  the  Greek  State  (14  Apr.)  ;  Russia,  England  and 
France  signed  an  agreement  for  securing  absolute   independence   for 
^  -  Greece  (6  July)  ;  the  Turks,  encouraged   by   Metternich,    refused   to 
*^     yield  ;  death  of  Canning  (8  Aug.)  ;  destruction  of  the  Turkish  and 
fleet  by  the  allies  at  Navarino  (20  Oct.,  1827). 
osition  of  the  Sultan  Mahmud  II . ;  by  the  massacre  of  the  Janissa- 
ries (15  June,  1826)  he  had  destroyed  his  army ;  the  battle  of  Navarino 
had  destroyed  his  fleet ;  nevertheless,  he  refused  to  consent  to  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece. 


The  Russo- Turkish  War,  1828-1829.  215 

The  Tsar  Nicholas,  in  the  name  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  attacked  the 
Turks,  and  a  Russian  army  crossed  the  Pruth  (7  May,   1828) ;  changes 
of  ministry  in  England  and  France  caused  England  under  Wellington 
to  be  less  eager,  and  France  under  Martignac  to  be  more  eager,  to  sup- 
port the  cause  of  the  Greeks  ;  a  French  force  under  Maison  occupied 
the  Morea,  which  was  evacuated  by  the  Egyptian  troops ;  the  Russians 
repulsed  from  Shumla  and  Silistria  ;  successful  campaign  of  Paskievitch 
(b.  1782,  d.  1856)  in  Armenia. 
.  <o)jJJ)  By  an  agreement  between  England,  France  and  Russia,  the  limits  of 
»X-^Greece  were  fixed,  and  it  was  resolved  that  some  prince  not  belonging 
,^  ft  to  the  royal  houses  of   those  countries  should    be  placed  upon    the 
u.     throne  of  Greece  (22  March,  1829)  ;  candidature  of  Leopold  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha.  \lM 

Campaign  of  1829:  Diebiteh  (b.  1785,  d.  1 831)  at  Adrianople  ;  terror 
of  the  Sultan  Mahmud  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  (14  Sept.,  1829) 
the  Treaty  of  Ackerman  was  renewed  with  the  addition  that  the  Hos- 
podars  of  the  Danubian  provinces  were  to  be  appointed  for  life  ;  the  in- 
dependence of  Greece  was  recognized,  and  the  Russians  were  permitted 
to  occupy  the  fortresses  upon  the  Danube  as  a  guarantee  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  large  indemnity  by  the  Turks. 

Conclusion  of  the  Greek  question  :  the  throne  refused  by  Leopold  ; 
murder  of  Capo  d'  Istria  (9  Oct.,  1831)  ;  Otho  of  Bavaria  made  King  of 
OV^Gr^ce  (7  May,  1832) ;  the  Morea  evacuated  by  the  French  troops. 

The  Tsar  Nicholas  I.  and  Poland  :  the  government  of  the  Grand 
Duke  Constantine  ;  the  indignation  of  the  Poles  at  the  refusal  of  self- 
government  ;  the  feeling  of  nationality  maintained  by  secret  societies  ; 
the  Poles,  who  had  served  under  Napoleon,  looked  to  France  for  help 
in  regaining  their  independence. 

Effect  of  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830,  in  France  upon  Poland  ;  the 
insurrection  at  Warsaw  (29  Nov.,  1830);  the  Russians  driven  from 
Poland;  Chlopicki,  Dictator  of  Poland  (5  Dec,  1830-23  Jan.,  1831)  ; 
the  Poles  defeated  the  Russians  at  Waver  (31  Mar.,  1831),  and  else- 
where ;  refusal  of  the  Powers  to  help  the  Poles  ;  the  Austrians  and  Prus- 
sians massed  troops  upon  their  frontiers,  fearing  that  the  insurrection 
would  reach  Austrian  and  Prussian  Poland  :  Louis  Philippe  of  France 
not  firm  enough  on  his  throne  to  interfere  ;  the  Poles  defeated  at  Ostro- 


2i6  "^  ir&S  Eastern  Question. 

lenka  (26  May,  1831)  ;  Warsaw  besieged  and  taken  by  Paskievitch 
(7  Sept.,  1831)  ;  cruel  punishment  of  the  Polish  msurgents  ;  rigorous 
government  of  Poland  by  the  Tsar  Nicholas,  ^^^"■"*-"^*^  ^^^V—    .-.o..^. 

Policy  of  Nicholas  towards  the  Turks  :  by  his  occupation  of  the  Dan- 
ubian  fortresses  he  kept  them  at  his  mercy  ;  the  character  and  career  of 
Mehemet  Ali,  Pasha  of  Egypt ;  he  invaded  Syria  (Oct.,  1831)  with  the 
intention  of  marching  on  Constantinople ;  intervention  of  England 
and  France  to  stop  Mehemet  Ali  (5  May,  1833)  ;  the  Sultan  Mahmud 
called  in  the  help  of  Russia  and  signed  an  offensive  and  defensive  treaty 
with  Nicholas  at  Unkiar  Skelessi  (8  July,  1833). 

Conclusion  of  the  Romanian  question  :  a  constitution  or  organic  law 
drawn  up  under  Russian  influence  for  the  Danubian  provinces ;  ac- 
cepted in  Wallachia  (July,  1831)  and  Moldavia  (Jan.,  1832);  excellence 
of  the  administrative  arrangements  made  b}^  this  constitution,  but 
political  power  was  left  entirely  to  the  boyars  ;  appointment  of  Alex- 
ander Ghica  to  be  Hospodar  or  Prince  of  Wallachia  and  of  Michael 
Stourza  to  be  Hospodar  or  Prince  of  Moldavia  (1834);  evacuation  of  the 
Danubian  principalities  by  the  Russians. 

Conclusion  of  the  Servian  question  :  Milosch  Obrenovitch  confirmed 
as  Prince  of  Servia,  but  under  the  obligation  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
to  the  Turks  and  to  maintain  a  Turkish  garrison  in  Belgrade  (Aug., 
1830). 

Russia's  advance  into  Central  Asia :  conquest  of  Central  Asian 
tribes  one  of  the  national  aims  of  the  Russian  people;  importance  and 
value  of  the  work  to  Europe;  the  campaigns  of  the  Russians  for  the  pos- 
session of  the  Caucasus  and  the  conquest  of  Circassia  and  Georgia ; 
Russian  wars  with  Persia  ;  by  the  Treaty  of  Gulistan  (12  Oct.,  1813) 
Fateh  Ali  Shah  ceded  D?^^)if;,stan  to  Russia,  and  by  the  Treaty  of 
Turkomanchai  (22  Feb.,  1828)  Russian  influence  became  predominant 
in  Persia. 

The  settlement  of  the  Eastern  Question  presents  different  problems  to 
England,  France  and  Austria,  which  all  have  an  interest  in  restraining 
Russia. 

Authorities  :  For  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Question,  reference  may  be  made 
to  the  sketch  contained  in  Debidour,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  I'Kurope  ;  to  several 
of  the  other  works  cited  under  Lecture  67  ;  to  Rosen,  Geschichte  der  Tiirkei  ( 1826- 


The  Reign  of  Charles  X.  21 7 

1856);  to  ^a//<?>'^/<?r,  Histoirede  I'Empereur  Nicolas  ;  to  C^w/,?,  Ddptiches  in^dits 
aux  Hospodars  dc  Valachie ;  to  Rhighojfer^  Ein  Dezennium  preussischer  Oricnt- 
politik  zur  Zeit  des  Zaren  Nikolaus  (1821-1830);  \.o  Prokesch-Osien,  Mehemet  Ali; 
to  Xenopol,  Histoiredes  Roumains  ;  to  Saint- Rene-Taillandier,  La  Serbie,  Kara- 
Georges  et  Milosch  ;  Cunibert,  Essai  historique  sur  les  revolutions  et  Tind^pendance 
de  la  Serbie  (1804-1856);  and  to  Ranke,  History  of  Servia.  For  the  War  of  Greek 
Independence,  the  best  authorities  are  Capo  d'  I  stria,  Correspondance  ;  Prokesch- 
Osteti,  Geschichte  des  Abfalls  der  Griechen  ;  Finlay,  History  of  the  Greek  Revolu- 
tion; Gordon,  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution  ;  Phillips,  The  War  of  Greek  Inde- 
pendence (1821-33) ;  Soutzo,  Histoire  de  la  revolution  grecque,  and  Tricoupis* 
history  written  in  modern  Greek ;  for  the  policy  of  Canning,  see  his  Political  Life 
by  Stapleton,  and  his  Official  Correspondence,  ed.  Stapleton;  for  the  war  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  see  Chesney,  The  Russo-Turkish  Campaigns  of  1828-29;  Moltke, 
Journal  of  the  War  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  Europe;  and  Fonton,  La  Russie 
en  Asie  Mineure,  ou  campagne  du  marechal  Paskievitch  en  1828  et  1829;  for  the 
Polish  Insurrection,  Schmitt,  Geschichte  des  polnischen  Aufstandes,  183 1  and 
Mieroslawski^  Histoire  de  la  revolution  de  Pologne;  and,  for  the  advance  of  Russia 
into  Central  Asia,  Hellwald,  The  Russians  in  Central  Asia,  and  Popowski,  The 
Rival  Powers  in  Central  Asia.  A  list  of  books  in  French  may  be  found  in  BengescOy 
Essai  d'une  notice  bibliographique  sur  la  question  d'Orient;  Orient  europ^en, 
182  r-97. 


LECTURE  69. 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1830  IN  FRANCE. 

The  position  of  parties  under  the  Restoration  :  in  the  Chambers  ap- 
peared only  ultra-Royalists,  and  Constitutionalists,  who  desired  to  in- 
terpret the  Charter  of  18 14  according  to  the  principles  of  1789  ;  in  the 
army  and  in  military  circles  were  many  Bonapartists,  and  in  the  cities 
the  democratic  feeling  was  very  strong. 

Character  of  the  ultra-Royalist  administration  of  Villele  (1821-28) 
during  the  latter  years  of  Louis  XVIII.  and  the  first  years  of  Charles 
X. ;  severe  repression  of  Bonapartist  plots  and  city  riots  ;  the  Royalists 
endeavored  to  make  the  Constitutional  party  responsible  for  Bona- 
partist and  democratic  excesses  ;  the  bourgeois  and  educated  classes  of 
France  supported  the  Constitutionalists  ;  Royalism  was  confined  to  a 
small  party  of  the  nobility. 


2iS  The  Revolutio7i  of  July, 

Growing  importance  of  journalism :  the  work  of  Armand  Carrel, 
Courier,  Thiers  and  Guizot. 
.  The  character  and  policy  of  Charles  X. ;  he  hoped  by  a  vigorous  for- 
reign  policy,  as  shown  in  the  expedition  to  the  Morea  in  1828  and  in 
the  expedition  to  Algiers  in  1830,  to  turn  the  minds  of  the  people  from 
internal  politics,  and  by  a  close  alliance  with  the  absolutist  powers,  es- 
pecially Russia,  to  get  assistance  from  abroad  in  case  of  insurrection  at 
home. 

The  elections  of  1827  gave  a  large  majority  in  the  Chambers  to  the 
Constitutionalists ;  Villele  succeeded  in  office  by  Martignac  (4  Jan  , 
182S)  ;  the  new  ministry  satisfied  neither  the  King  nor  the  Chambers, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  ultra-Royalist  ministry  of  Polignac  (8  Aug., 
1829)  ;  the  king  and  ministers,  being  unable  to  get  a  majority  for  their 
measures, resolved  to  alter  the  Charter,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
royal  power. 

Proclamation  of  the  Ordinances,  submitting  the  press  to  severe  cen- 
sorship and  modifying  the  electoral  laws  (25  July,  1830). 

The  insurrection  of  July,  1830,  in  Paris ;  the  erection  of  barricades 
and  street  fighting  (27,  28  July)  ;  the  failure  of  the  troops  to  suppress 
the  insurrection  ;  Charles  X.,  when  too  late,  withdrew  the  Ordinances 
(29  July)  ;  he  resolved  to  leave  France  with  his  family  (31  July)  ;  he 
appointed  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  Lieutenant- General  of  the  kingdom, 
(i  Aug.,)  and  abdicated  (2  Aug.)  ;  he  reached  England  (17  Aug.). 

Surprise  of  the  Constitutionalists  at  their  sudden  and  complete  victory  ; 
the  part  played  by  La  Fayette  ;  the  Constitutionalists  resolved  that  al- 
though the  victory  had  been  won  by  the  democrats  of  Paris  it  should 
result  in  the  formation  of  a  constitutional  monarchy  ;  the  Chambers 
revised  the  Charter  from  the  liberal  point  of  view,  and  (7  Aug.)  elected 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  as  King  of  the  French  under  the  title  of  Louis 
Philippe. 

Character,  career  and  disposition  of  Louis  Philippe  (b.  1773,  d.  1850.); 
difficulties  of  his  position  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  ;  he  repre- 
sented the  ideas  and  wishes  of  the  bourgeois  and  not  of  the  whole  people 
of  France,  which  weakened  him  at  home,  while  abroad  he  was  regarded 
as  the  creation  of  a  new  French  Revolution  not  less  dangerous  to  the 
monarchical  system  of  Europe  than  the  first  French  Revolution. 


The  Policy  of  Louis  Philippe.  219 

The  foreign  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  :  importance  of  the  service  ren- 
dered at  this  time  by  Talleyrand,  as  ambassad6r  to  London  (Sept.,  1830- 
Nov.,  1834);  the  Monarchy  of  July  recognized  by  Wellington,  as 
prime  minister  of  England,  and  cordially  supported  by  the  Reform 
Ministry  of  Lord  Grey,  which  succeeded  to  power  in  Nov.,  1830;  the 
recognition  by  England  was  followed  by  recognition  by  Austria  and 
Prussia,  Metternich  and  Frederick  William  IIL  being  afraid  to  attack 
France  by  themselves  ;  the  Tsar  Nicholas  was  too  much  occupied  with 
putting  down  the  Polish  insurrection  to  interfere  in  France,  and  did  not 
desire  to  do  so  after  Louis  Philippe  refused  to  assist  the  Poles. 

The  insurrections  in  Belgium  and  elsewhere  which  followed  the  Revo- 
lution in  France  made  the  position  of  Louis  Philippe  very  difficult,be- 
cause  France  was  held  responsible  for  the  other  risings  ;  skill  shown 
by  Louis  Philippe  and  Talleyrand. 

Internal  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  ;  doubtfulness  of  his  title  as  a  legiti-^ 
mate  or  as  a  revolutionary  monarch  ;  his  adoption  of  the  tricolor  flag  ;  La 
Fayette  appointed  Commandant-General  of  the  National  Guards  of 
France  (16  Aug.) ;  the  first  ministry  of  Louis  Philippe  -containing 
members  of  both  the  Constitutional  and  advanced  Liberal  parties ;  , 
5A^^!^^affitt^  (b.  1767,  d.  1 844), the  leader  of  the  advanced  party,  made  chief 
minister  (3  Nov.,  1830)  ;  changes  made  in  the  Constitution. 

Casimir  Perier  (b.  1777,  d.  1832)  ;  his  ministry  (13  Mar.,  1831-16 
May,  1832)  ;  his  strong  government  at  home  and  his  strong  foreign 
policy  ;  abolition  of^the  l^ereditary  peeragejjid  appointment  of  a  cham- 
ber of  life  peers. 

Significance  of  the  Revolution  of  1830  in  France  ;  the  bourgeois  at 
last  had  an  opportunity  of  putting  into  effect  the  principles  of  1789;   / 
results  of  the  experiment.  • 

Authorities  :  For  the  goverument  of  the  Restoration,  see  Viel-Castel  and  Du- 
vergierde  Hauratine,  cited  under  Lecture  67,  with  Datidet,  Le  ministere  de  Martig- 
nac.  The  Revolution  of  1S30  in  France  is  treated  at  length  in  the  first  chapters  of 
the  following  general  histories  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  :  Thurcati-Danginy 
Histoire  de  la  Monarchie  de  Juillet ;  Louis  Blaftc,  Histoirc  de  dix  ans  ;  Capefigue, 
L'Europe  depuis  I'avenement  du  Roi  Louis  Philippe  ;  D'Haussonvillg,  Histoire 
de  la  politique  ext^rieure  du  gouvernement  fran9ais  ( 1830-48),  and  Hillebrandy  Ge- 
schichte  Frankreichs ;  of  special  value  are  Talleyrand,  M^moires,  vols,  iv  and  v, 
containing  his  correspondence  with  Louis  Philippe  from  1830  to  1834,  and  refer- 


220  The  Belgian  hisiirrectioji. 

ence  may  be  made  to  Weil^  Les  elections  legislative  depuis  1789  ;  E.  Pierrey  His- 
toire  des  assemblees  politiques ;  Casitnir  Perier^  Opinions  et  discours ;  Guizot, 
Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  mon  temps  ;  Lafayette ^  Memoires  ;  Bardoux\ 
Ives  dernieres  annees  de  La  Fayette ;  Salvandy,  Seize,  mois ;  Laffitte,  Memoires , 
D'Haussez,  Memoires;  Pasqiiier,  Memoires;  the  Due  de  Broglie^  Souvenirs,  and 
Daudet,  L,e  proces  des  ministres  de  Charles  X. 


LECTURE  70. 


THE   BELGIAN  INSURRECTION. 

The  mistake  made  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  uniting  the  Prot- 
estant and  Catholic  Netherlands  under  one  monarch  ;  the  hereditary 
antagonism  of  the  Dutch  and  the  Belgians  ;  in  1815  Belgium  had  been 
for  more  than  twenty  years  a  part  of  France  and  resented  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Dutch. 

The  government  of  William  I.,  King  of  the  Netherlands ;  he  de- 
clared Dutch  the  official  language  of  the  kingdom  and  favored  his 
Dutch  over  his  Belgian  subjects. 

The  Belgians  excited  by  the  news  of  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830,  in 
Paris,  and  hoping  for  help  from  the  new  government  of  France,  rose  in 
insurrection  (25  Aug.,  1830)  ;  a  Dutch  attack  on  Brussels  repulsed 
(23-27  Sept.)  ;  a  provisional  government  formed,  and  a  national  as- 
sembly summoned. 

The  National  Assembly  of  Belgium  met  (10  Nov.),  solemnly  pro- 
claimed the  independence  of  Belgium  (18  Nov.),  and  that  Belgium 
should  be  like  France  a  constitutional  monarchy  and  not  a  republic. 

William  I.  appealed  to  the  Great  Powers  for  assistance,  on  the  ground 
that  the  independence  of  Belgium  was  contrary  to  the  arrangements 
made  bv  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ;  but  the  Tsar  Nicholas  was  engaged 
in  Poland,  Metternich's  attention  was  fixed  on  Italy,  England,  under 
the  Reform  Ministry  of  Grey,  sympathized  with  the  Belgian  insurgents, 
and  only  the  King  of  Prussia  w^as  inclined  to  assist  him. 

The  difficult  position  of  Louis  Philippe  :  as  the  king  made  by  the 
Revolution  of  1830  in  Paris,  he  was  looked  on  as  responsible  for  the 


Tht  Indepcndeytce  of  Belgium,  221 

Belgian  Revolution  by  Europe  and  appealed  to  for  help  by  the  Belgians; 
England,  was  the  only  great  power  which  cared  much  about  Belgium, 
and  it  thought  more  of  keeping  Belgium  separate  from  France  than  sub- 
ject to  Holland  ;  Talleyrand,  as  French  embassador  in  London,  agreed 
to  act  with  England  in  settling  the  fate  of  the  Belgians  ;  a  conference 
of  the  Powers  summoned  for  this  purpose  in  London. 

The  Conference  of  London  recognized  the  independence  ofBelgium  \ 
(20  Dec),  and  directed  an  armistice  to  oe  made  (9  Jan.,  iSjOTit  tixecT 
the  boundaries  of  the  new  Belgian  State  (20  Jan.),  excluding  from  it 
Luxemburg,  Maestricht  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Scheldt ;  discontent  of 
the  Belgians  with  this  frontier,  which  was  evenlgalb^^^l^hUv,modified. 

The  Due  de  Nemours,  second  son  of  Lo u is^ Ph il ippe/  d^ted  King  \ 
of  the  Belgians   over  the   Duke  of  Leuchtenberg  and  the  Archduke 
Charles;   he  refused   the  throne  (17  Feb.,    1831)  ;  ^gi^le^^de^^^ier 
made  regent  (24  Feb.)  ;  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg-Go3ia  (b.   1790,  d. 
1865),  the  English  candidate,  elected  King  of  the  Belgians  (4  June);  he 
accepted  the  throne  under  certain  conditions  ;    the  Conference  of  Lon-    \ 
don,  under  the  influence  of  the  English  foreign  ,^Qinrjsteij,^^Pa^xiers ton    ) 
(b.  1784,  d.  1865),  declared  Belgium  neutral  hnder  the  guarantee  of  the    1 
Powers.        <^^^^^  I 

William  I.  disregarded  the  armistice  and  suddenly  invgde^^elgium 
(i  Aug.,  1831);  Leopold  appealed  for  aid  to  France;  vigorous  action 
of  the  Casimir  Perier  ministry;  a  French  army  under  Geiard. occupied 
Brussels  (12  Aug.,  1831);  the  Belgians  accepted  the  terms  fixed  by  the 
Conference  of  London  (15  Nov.,  183 1);  the  states  of  Europe  generally 
recognized  Leopold. 

William  I.  remained  obdurate;  the  English  and  French  fleets  block- 
aded the  Dutch  ports;  Gerard's  army  was  directed  to  take  the  citadel 
of  Antwerp,  the  only  Belgian  fortress  still  garrisoned  by  the  Dutch 
troops;  capture  of  Antwerp  (23  Dec,  1832). 

From  that  time  the  independence  of  Belgium  was  assured,  though 
William  I.  still  tried  to  make  difficulties. 

The  nature  and  character  of  the  Belgian  Constitution, 

The  effect  of  the  Revolutions  of  1830  in  Paris  and  Belgium  on  Ger- 
many; riots  and  risings  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  where  the  Catholics  were 
alarmed  at  the  Protestant  legislation  of  Frederick  William  III.,  and 


222  Repressive  Policy  of  Metternich. 

where  the  idea  of  self-government  was  especially  strong ;  insurrections 
and  demands  for  self-government  in  other  German  states,  notably  in 
Hanover,  Hesse- Cassel  and  Saxony  ;  expulsion  of  Charles  II.,  Duke  of 
Brunswick,  by  his  people  (7  Sept.,  1830). 

Resurrection  of  the  Young  German  movement  for  nationality  and 
self-government  :  revival  of  the  Tugenbund,  the  Burscheuschaft,  etc.  ^ 
^  Metternich  attributed  these  political  risings  to  the  growth  of  revolu-\ 
/tionary  ideas,  and  attacked  all  representative  government  as  a  form  of  1 
Arepublicanism  and  as  essentially  revolutionary.  J 

^  Metternich' s  ascendency  over  the  mind  of  Frederick  William  III.; 
after  1830  he  appealed  to  the  Tsar.  Nicholas  and  hoped  to  revive  the 
Holy  Alliance.    e^^Y^^^^""^  ^  ^  /^.>'v-^a^  . 

The  Conferences  of  Toplitz  (7-16  Aug.,  1833),  and  Miinchengratz ' 
(10-20  Sept.,  1833)  ;  the  three  powers  of  Austria,  Prus^a  and  Russia, 
guaranteed  each  other's  rights  in  Poland  and  took  measures  for  crush- 
ing the  idea  of  Polish  nationality  ;  they  also  resolved  against  the  doc- 
trine of  non-intervention,  and  declared  the  right  of  any  monarch,  whose 
position  was  assailed  by  internal  rebellion,  to  appeal  for  aid  to  other 
monarchs. 

With  regard  to  Germany,  a  law  was  passed  in  the  Federal  Diet, 
through  the  influence  of  Metternich,  that,  in  case  of  disagreement 
between  a  German  ruler  and  his  people,  the  Confederation  could 
interfere  to  restore  the  powei  of  the  ruler,  and  it  was  declared  that  no 
constitution  granted  by  himself  could  limit  the  right  of  a  ruler  to  collect 
taxes. 

The  elGfect  of  the  Revolution  of  1830  in  Italy  :  the  Carbonari  directed 
a  series  of  insurrections  ;  the  Empress  Marie  Louise  driven  from  Parma, 
and  Duke  Francis  IV.  from  Modena  (Feb.,  1831)  ;  insurrections  in  the 
States  of  the  Church  due  to  the  repressive  government  of  Pope  Leo 
XII. — Delia  Genga — (1823-29)  and  of  Pope  Pius  VIII. — Castiglioni — 
(1829-30)  ;  the  election  of  Pope  Gregory  XVI. — Cappellari — (2  Feb., 
1 831)  ;  provisional  government  formed  for  the  Legations  at  Bologna, 
under  Carlo  Pepcli,  and  rejection j)fjthe  temporal_power  of  the^Papacy^> 

Metternich  sent  Austrian  troops^  to  restore^order.  in  Parma,  Modena, 
and  the  States  of  the  Church  (March,  1831)  ;  the  Italian  insurgents  exj-j^  ^ 
pected  help  from  France  ;    the  attitude  taken  by  Louis  Philippe   and 


Revolution  in  Portugal.  223 

Casimir  Perier ;  the  French  occupied  Ancona  (22  Feb.,  1832),  which 
they  asserted  their  right  to  hold  as  long  as  the  Austrians  occupied  the 
"Legations  ;  the  French  evacuated  Ancona,  when  the  Austrians  with- 
drew (Dec,  1838). 

Significance  of  the  movement  of  1830  in  Europe. 

Authorities:  On  the  government  of  Belgium  by  the  Dutch,  see  Getlache,  Histoirc 
du  royaume  des  Pays-Bas  depuis  1814  jusqu'en  1830;  on  the  Belgian  Revolution,  see 
White ^  The  Belgic  Revolution  of  1830  ;  Nothomb,  Essai  historique  et  politique  sur  la 
revolution  de  Belgique  ;  Juste,  La  revolution  beige  de  1830,  Lecongres  national  de 
Belgique,  Les  fondateurs  de  la  monarchic  beige,  and  Leopold  I.  et  Leopold  II., 
leur  vie  et  leur  regne  ;  Bavay,  Histoire  de  la  revolution  beige  de  1830  ;  and  Potter, 
Souvenirs.  Primary  authorities  are  Discussions  du  congres  national  de 
Belgique,  1830-31,  ed.  Huyttens,  5  vols.;  and  Recueil  de  pieces  diplomatiques  rel- 
atives aux  affaires  de  la  Belgique  en  1830-32,  ed.  Verstolk  van  Soelen  ;  Thofii^setit 
La  constitution  beige  annot^e.  On  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Germany  in 
1830,  see  Gervinus  and  Treitschke,  cited  under  Lecture  67  ;  Butle,  Gcschichte  der 
neuesten  Zeit ;  Deventer,  Cinquante  annees  de  I'histoire  f^d^rale  de  I'Allemagne  ; 
Mucke,  Die  politischen  Bewegung  in  Deutschland  von  1830  bis  1835  ;  and  Bieder- 
tnann,  1815-1840,  funf  und  zwanzig  Jahre  deutscher  Geschichte  ;  and,  in  Italy,  see 
Thayer,  The  Dawn  of  Italian  Independence,  Italy  from  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
1814,  to  the  Fall  of  Venice,  1849 ;  Stillman,  The  Union  of  Italy ;  and  Tivatoni, 
Storia  critica  del  Risorgimento  Italiano. 


LECTURE  71. 


INSURRECTION  AND  CIVIL  WAR  IN  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 

The  condition  of  Portugal  after  the  Peninsular  War;  extent  of 
English  influence  in  the  Regency  and  the  army;  expulsion  of  the  Eng- 
lish officers  (1820)  and  adoption  of  a  democratic  Constitution  (1822). 

Return  of  John  VI.  to  Portugal  (4  July,  1821);  Brazil  declared  its 
independence  under  his  elder  son,  the  Emperor  Pedro  I.  (Aug.,  1822); 
on  the  death  of  John  VI.  (10  Mar.,  1826),  the  Emperor  Pedro  issued  the 
Charter  of  1826  (26  Apr.)  establishmg  moderate  parliamentary  govern- 
ment and  then  abdicated  the  throne  of  Portugal  (2  May,  1826)  in  favor 


of  his  daughter,  Maria  da  Gloria  (b.  1819);   the  English  force  sent  by  / 


Canning  to  Portugal  to  maintain  order,  withdrawn  in  18: 


224  Civil  War  in  Pprtugal.  , 

Dom  Miguel  (b.  1802,  d.  1866),  younger  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Pedro,  who  was  appointed  Regent  (3  July,  1827),  seized  the  throne  (30 
June,  1828)  ;  he  declared  himself  an  absolute  monarch,  and  persecuted 
both  the  moderate  adherents  to  the  Charter  of  1826,  and  the  more  radi- 
cal supporters  of  the  Constitution  of  1822. 

The  reign  of  Dom  Miguel ;  both  Chartists  and  Constitutionalists  rose 
in  rebellion  (1829)  and  declared  in  favor  of  Maria  da  Gloria  ;  the  Em- 
peror Pedro  resigned  the  throne  of  Brazil  (7  April,  1831)  and  came  to 
the  support  of  his  daughter's  cause  ;  attitude  of  the  powers  of  Europe 
towards  the  civil  war  in  Portugal ;  many  English  officers  entered  the 
Queen's  service;  the  siege  of  Oporto;  Napier  (b.  1786,  d.  i860)  de- 
stroyed Miguel's  fleet  off  Cape  Saint  Vincent  (5  July,  1833);  the  Ped- 
roites  occupied  Lisbon  (24  July). 

England,  France  and  Spain  recognized  Maria  da  Gloria  and  formed 
the  Quadruple  Alliance  (22  Apr.,  1834)  ;  Dom  Miguel  surrendered  to  a 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  army  at  Evora  Monte  (26  May,  1834)  ;  by  the 
Convention  of  Evora  Monte  (29  May)  he  was  expelled  from  Portugal. 

Death  of  the  ex-Emperor  Pedro  (24  Sept.,  1834)  ;  troubled  reign  of 
Maria  da  Gloria  (1834-53);  repeated  outbreaks  of  civil  war  and  fre- 
quent military  pronunciamentos  in  favor  of  the  Charter  of  1826  and  the 
Constitution  of  1822  ;  revision  of  the  Charter  (1852)  ;  the  career  of  Sal- 
danha  (b.  1790,  d.  1876). 
^  Revival  of  national  feeling  in  Portugal ;  rejection  of  the  Iberianist 
V  £-  idea. 

The  latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain,  after  his 
restoration  to  absolute  power  by  the  French  in  1823;  the  question  of  the 
succession  to  the  throne  :  Ferdinand  VII.,  by  a  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
dieclared  his  elder  daughter,  Isabella,  to  be  his  heir  ;  opposition  of  Don 
Carlos  (b.  1788,  d.  1855),  his  brother,  who  claimed  the  succession  as 
j  male  heir. 

Death  ot  Ferdinand  VII.  (29  Sept.,  1833)  ;  Isabella,  a  child  of  three 
years  old,  recognized  as  Queen  by  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  under  the 
regency  of  her  mother,  Christina  (b.  1806,  d.  1878),  a  daughter  of  Ferd- 
inand I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  character  of  Christina  ;  the  regency 
recognized  by  England  and  France. 

Don  Carlos  opposed  the  regency  and  declared  himself  king  ;  his  cause 


The  First  Car  list  War.  225 

favored  by  the  clericals  and  by  the  mountaineers  of  Northern  Spain  ; 
outbreak  of  civil  war  ;  victories  of  the  Carlists  ;  death  of  Zumalacarregut 
(25  June,  1835). 

Rivalry  of  England  and  France  in  the  affairs  of  the  Peninsula  :  per- 
sonal rivalry  between  Palmerston  and  Louis  Philippe ;  both  countries 
prevented  by  jealousy  of  each  other  from  openly  assisting  the  Chris- 
tinists,  though  they  both  as  constitutional  monarchies  desired 
her  success  over  the  Carlists;  "Legions"  of  volunteers  were,  how- 
ever, raised  both  in  France  and  in  England  for  the  support  of  the  Chris- 
tinists  ;  services  of  Sir  De  Lacy  Evans. 

Perilous  position  of  the  Christinists  ;  the  military  revolt  of  La  Granja 
(12-13  Aug.,  1836)  ;  Christina  summoned  a  Cortes,  which  promulgated 
the  liberal  constitution  of  1837  (June)  ;  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war 
against  the  Carlists  ;  victories  of  Espartero  ;  defeat  and  flight  of  Don 
Carlos  (Sept.,  1839). 

Espartero  forced  Christina  to  leave  Spain  (Oct.,  1840),  and  ruled  the 
country  as  Regent  for  three  years  ;  his  strong  government  and  en- 
deavors to  put  down  brigandage  and  to  restore  the  prosperity  of  Spain. 

Narvaez  overthrew  Espartero  (July,  1843),  recalled  Christina,  and 
declared  the  young  Queen  Isabella  of  age  (8  Nov.,  1843). 

The  rivalry  between  England  and  France  for  influence  in  Spain  be- 
comes more  pronounced  ;  the  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  ;  the  question  of 
the  Spanish  marriages  ;  Queen  Isabella  married  to  her  cousin  Don 
Francisco  de  Assisi,  Duke  of  Cadiz,  and  her  sister  and  heiress  to  the 
Due  de  Montpensier,  fifth  son  of  Louis  Philippe  (10  Oct.,  1846). 

Condition  of  Spain  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Isabella  :  frequent 
changes  in  the  ministry  between  Narvaez  (b.  1800,  d.  1868),  Espartero 
(b.  1792,  d.  1879)  and  O'Donnell  (b.  1809,  d.  1867)  ;  backwardness  of 
Spain  in  material  and  intellectual  progress. 

Characteristics  of  the  history  of  the  Peninsula  during  the  period  sue-  1 
ceeding  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  ;  failure  of  representative  institu- 
tions   and  party   government  •  to   meet  the  conditions    in  Spain  and 
Portugal ;  the  meaning  and  effect  of  the  pronunciamentos  and  civil  wars. 

Authorities :  Upon  the  civil  wars  in  Portugal  and  the  establishment  of  repre- 
sentative government  there,  see  Morse  Step/tens,  The  Story  of  Portugal:  StmfH 
Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Saldanha  ;  Luz  Soriano^  Historia  da  Guerra  civi  e  do  E>- 


226  The  Monarchy  of  July. 

tabelecimento  do  Governo  Parlamentar  em  Portugal  ;  Arriaga,  Historia  da  Revo- 
lu9ao  portugueza  de  1820 ;  Freire  de  Carvalho,  Memorias  para  a  historia  do  tempo 
que  duron  a  Usurpacao  de  Dom  Miguel  ;  Gomes  de  Barros  e  Cunha,  Historia  da 
Liberdade  em  Portugal,  and  Bollaert,  The  Wars  of  Succession  in  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal ;  upon  the  same  period  in  Spain,  see  Reynald^  Histoire  de  I'Kspagne  depuis  la 
mort  de  Charles  III.;  Hubbard,  Histoire  contemporaine  de  I'Espagne;  Pirala, 
Historia  de  la  guerra  civil  y  de  los  partidos  liberal  y  Carlista  ;  Mariano,  La  rcgencia 
de  Baldomero  Espartero  ;  Los  Valles,  Don  Carlos ;  Bollaert;  and  Duncan,  The 
English  in  Spain,  or  the  War  of  Succession  between  1834  and  1840. 


LECTURE  72. 


EUROPE  DURING  THE  REIGN  OF  LOUIS  PHILIPPE. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Monarchy  of  July  :  its  founders  moulded 
their  ideas  on  the  English  parliamentary  system,  including  the  responsi- 
bihty  of  ministers,  the  annual  voting  of  supplies,  and  the  selection  of 
ministers  from  the  legislature,  but  the  upper  House  consisted  of  life 
and  not  of  hereditary  peers,  and  the  popular  House  was  elected  by  the 
large  taxpayers  and  members  of  the  learned  professions,  the  franchise 
being  restricted  to  about  three  hundred  thousand  persons. 

The  difficulties  of  the  position  of  Louis  Philippe  :  he  was  opposed  on 
the  one  side  by  the  Legitimists,  who  caused  disturbances  in  the  South, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  Republicans,  who  caused  many  riots  in  the 
great  industrial  cities,  and  especially  in  Lyons. 

Effect  of  the  foreign  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  and  of  his  refusal  to 
help  the  insurgent  Belgians,  Poles  and  Italians  upon  his  position  at 
home. 

Death  of  Casimir  Perier  (16  May,  1832). 

Repression  of  a  Republican  rising  in  Paris  (6  June),  and  arrest  of  the 
Duchess  of  Berry  (7  Nov.),  who  had  endeavored  to  raise  the  Vendee  for 
the  Legitimists. 

Commencement  of  parliamentary  government ;  formation  of  the  Soult 
administration  (11  Oct.,  1832);  difficulties  in  the  way  of  establishing 
regular  parliamentary  government  in  France ;  absence  of  definite  par- 


The  Foreign  Policy  of  Louis  Philippe.  227 

liainentary  parties;  the  chief  parliamentary  leaders,  Thiers  (b.  1797,  d. 
1877),  Guizot  (b.  1787,  d.  1874),  the  Due  de  Broglie  (b.  1785,  d.  1870), 
Mole  (b.  1781,  d.  1855),  Berryer  (b.  1790,  d.  1868),  and  Odilon  Barrot 
(b.  1791,  d.  1873)  ;  frequent  ministerial  changes. 

Numerous  industrial  and  democratic  insurrections  in  France ; 
Fieschi's  attempt  on  the  king's  life  (28  July,  1835);  attempt  of  Louis 
Napoleon  upon  Strasburg  (30  Oct.,  1836). 

The  foreign  policy  of  Louis  Philippe  :  his  intimate  relations  with 
England  (1830-34)  ;  the  cause  of  this  close  alliance,  the  distrust  of  him 
felt  by  the  other  Great  Powers;  gradual  weakening  of  the  alliance ; 
Palmerston,  the  English  foreign  minister,  endeavored  to  keep  France 
from  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  Spain  and  Portugal  ;  Louis  Philippe 
then  weakened  in  his  attachment  for  England,  and  negotiated  with 
Austria,  endeavoring  to  obtain  an  Austrian  archduchess  as  wife  for  his 
eldest  son  ;  France  and  England  came  into  collision  on  South  American, 
Asiatic,  African  and  other  questions. 

The  occupation  and  gradual  conquest  of  Algeria  by  France  :  the  re- 
sistance of  Abd-el-Kader  (b.  1807,  d.  1883);  the  campaigns  of  Bugeaud 
(b.  1784,  d.  1849). 

Revolution  in  Servia  ;  abdication  of  Milosch  Obrenovitch  (13  June, 
1839)  ;  death  of  his  son  and  successor,  Milan  (8  July)  ;  brief  reign  of 
Michael  Obrenovitch,  second  son  of  Milosch  ;  his  expulsion  (27  Aug. , 
1842)  ;  election  of  Alexander  Karageorgevitch  by  the  Skuptchina,  or 
Diet,  as  Prince  of  Servia  (14  Sept.). 

A  fresh  crisis  in  the  Eastern  Question  nearly  caused  war  between 
France  and  England  ;  the  Sultan  Mahmud  IL  had  not  forgiven  Mehe- 
met  Ali,  the  Pasha  of  Egypt,  who  had  conquered  Syria  in  1832,  and 
had  only  been  prevented  from  overthrowing  the  Ottoman  Empire  by 
the  intervention  of  Russia  and  the  Great  Powers;  the  Turks  invaded 
Syria,  but  were  defeated  by  the  Egyptians  near  Aleppo  (24  June, 
1839)  ;  death  of  Mahmud  II  (30  June),  and  accession  of  Abdul  Medjid. 
The  French  sympathized  with  Mehemet  Ali,  but  England  feared  that 
his  success  would  overthrow  the  Turkish  Empire,  and  therefore  agreed 
with  Russia,  Prussia  and  Austria  to  intervene  on  behalf  of  the  Turks  ; 
Palmerston  resolved  to  break  the  Anglo-French  alliance  and  by  the 
Treaty  of  London  (15  July,  1840)  agreed  with  the  other  three  Great 


2?8  The  Spa7iish  Marriages. 

Powers  to  act  without  France  ;  Napier  and  Stopford  bombarded  Bey- 
rout  (i2  Sept.)  and  Acre  (2  Nov.);  the  Egyptians  retired  from  Syria; 
and  eventually  (13  Feb.,  1841)  Mehemet  Ali  was  forced  to  accept  an 
hereditary  title  to  Egypt  under  certain  conditions,  and  to  abandon  all 
other  claims;  the  Great  Powers  guaranteed  the  neutrality  of  the  Dar- 
danelles under  Turkish  sovereignty  C13  July,  1841). 

Indignation  felt  in  France  against  England  :  war  averted  with  diffi- 
culty ;  formation  of  the  Guizot  administration  (29  Oct.,  1840),  which 
remained  in  office  till  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Growth  of  the  Napoleonic  legend  in  France  :  attempt  of  Louis  Na- 
poleon on  Boulogne  (6  Aug.,  1840)  ;  the  remains  of  the  first  Napoleon 
brought  to  France  and  interred  in  Paris  (15  Dec,  1840). 

Changes  brought  about  in  the  political  attitude  and  conditions  of 
England  during  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  ;  the  passing  of  the  Reform 
Bill  (7  June,  1832)  transferred  political  power  from  the  aristocracy  to 
the  middle  classes,  and  subsequent  reforms  made  the  administration 
more  democratic  ;  the  accession  of  Victoria  (20  June,  1837)  separated 
English  from  continental  interests,  for  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover  passed 
to  her  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  who  ascended  the  throne  as 
Ernest  I. 

Marriage  of  Victoria  to  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  (b.  18 19,  d. 
1861)  ;  his  character,  and  interest  in  foreign  politics  ;  the  Queen's  first 
ministers,  Melbourne  and  Palmerston  ;  influence  of  Wellington  ;  Sir 
Robert  Peel  (b,  1788,  d.  1850)  prime  minister  (1841)  ;  his  endeavors  for 
peace. 

The  question  of  the  Spanish  marriages  :  Louis  Philippe  tricked  the 
English  ministry,  and  after  preventing  the  marriage  of  Queen  Isabella  of 
Spain  to  the  English  candidate,  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
secured  the  marriage  of  the  young  Queen  to  her  cousin  Don  Francisco 
and  of  her  only  sister  to  his  own  fifth  son,  the  Due  de  Montpensier 
(10  Oct.,  1846). 

Indignation  of  the  English  court,  and  ministry  at  the  Spanish  mar- 
riages; Lord  John  Russell  (b.  1792,  d.  1878),  who  came  into  office  with 
Palmerston  as  foreign  minister  (6  July,  1846),  resolved  to  isolate  Louis 
Philippe  ;  this  government  refused  to  discourage  the  revolutionary 
movements  on  the  point  of  breaking  out  all  over  Europe. 


The  Zoilverein,  229 

Position  of  Austria  during  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe:  the  death  of 
the  Emperor  Francis  I.  and  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I. 
(2  Mar.,  1835),  strengthened  the  position  of  Metternich  ;  his  close  rela- 
tions with  the  Tsar  Nicholas;  occupation  of  Cracow  (1836-4:)  by 
Austria  ;  annexation  of  Cracow  by  Austria  (6  Nov.,  1846)  ;  Metternich's 
continued  efforts  to  repress  all  movements  for  parliamentary  institutions 
or  national  independence  in  Italy  and  Germany  ;  Metternich's  friend- 
ship with  Russia  strengthened,  while  his  influence  over  Prussia  de- 
creased after  the  accession  of  Frederick  William  IV.  (1840). 

Insignificant  part  played  by  Prussia  in  European  politics  during  tne 
latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  III.;  the  king's  fidelity 
to  the  ideas  of  the  Holy  Alliance  and  to  the  settlement  reached  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna ;  he  refused  to  grant  to  the  Prussians  the  constitu- 
tion he  had  promised  ;  under  Metternich's  influence  he  opposed  liberal 
and  parliamentary  ideas  all  over  Germany;  discontent  caused  in 
Rhenish  Prussia  by  his  Protestant  sympathies  j  death  of  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.  (7  June,  1840). 

In  spite  of  this  opposition  to  liberal  ideas  Prussia  was  regarded  as  the 
one  power  which  could  unite  Germany ;  this  doctrine  held  especially  in 
Northern  Germany,  fostered  by  the  universities,  and  encouraged  by 
Prussian  statesmen  and  administrators  ;  excellence  of  the  Prussian  ad- 
ministrative and  military  system  ;  maintenance  of  the  system  of  Scham- 
horst ;  Prussia  became  especially  the  guardian  of  the  smaller  states  of 
Germany  ;  the  first  step  taken  towards  hegemony  by  the  formation  of 
the  ZoUverein. 

The  history  of  the  ZoUverein  or  Customs-union  ;  the  ideas  and 
arguments  of  Lisfc-(b.  1789,  d.  1846)  ;  the  Federal  Diet  of  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation  refused  to  establish  a  customs- union  ;  formation 
of  the  ZoUverein  (1833");  its  chief  members,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Wiirtem- 
berg,  Saxony,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  the  petty  states  of 
the  Thuringian  Union  ;  joined  by  Baden,  Nassau  and  Hesse-Homburg 
(1835),  Frankfort  (1836),  Waldeck  (1838),  Brunswick  (1841)  and  Lux- 
emburg (1842);  opposed  to  it  was  the  Steuerverein,  consisting  of  Han- 
over, Oldenburg,  Brunswick  (to  1841),  and  Schaumburg-Lippe,  as  well 
as  the  two  Mecklenburgs,  and  the  free  cities  of  Hamburg,  Bremen  and 
Liibeck  ;  commercial  and  political  importance  of  the  ZoUverein. 


230  The   War  of  the  Sonderbund. 

Accession  of  Frederick  William  IV.  as  King  of  Prussia  (1840);  his 
character  ;  his  hatred  for  France  ;  his  liberal  ideas  ;  he  placed  Kichhorn 
and  Boy  en  in  ofifice,  allowed  exiled  liberals  to  return,  patronized  German 
literature  and  gave  a  measure  of  liberty  to  the  press  ;  he  formed  a  States- 
General  out  of  the  Provincial  Estates  with  taxing  and  consultative 
powers  only  (3  Feb.,  1847). 

Civil  war  in  Switzerland  :  the  desire  of  the  majority  of  the  Swiss 
cantons  for  a  stronger  federal  bond  than  that  devised  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  ;  changes  in  the  constitutions  of  individual  cantons ;  intro- 
duction, especially  since  183c,  of  democratic  ideas  ;  cantonal  revolutions  ; 
formation  of  the  Sonderbund,  by  which  the  seven  Catholic  cantons  of 
lyucerne,  Schwyz,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  Freiburg,  and  the  Valais 
made  an  armed  union  to  resist  centralization  and  defend  the  Jesuits ; 
the  majority  in  the  Federal  Diet,  presided  over  by  Ochsenbein,  decreed 
the  dissolution  of  the  Sonderbund  (20  July,  1847)  and  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  ;  attitude  of  the  Great  Powers;  mutual  apprehensions  of 
lyOuis  Philippe  and  Metternich  ;  they  deny  the  right  of  the  Swiss  to  alter 
the  constitution  laid  down  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  ;  the  Sonderbund 
declared  its  intention  to  resist  (29  Oct.);  the  Federal  Diet  declared  war 
(4  Nov.)  ;  General  Dufour  defeated  the  troops  of  the  Sonderbund  and 
occupied  their  cantons,  which  submitted  (29  Nov.)  ;  declaration  of  the 
new  federal  constitution,  giving  greater  strength  to  the  federal  power 
and  organizing  a  Swiss  army,  but  recognizing  cantonal  rights  in  in- 
ternal administration. 

General  apprehension  of  democratic  risings  felt  in  1847  5  preparations 
for  revolution  ;  the  persistence  of  liberal  and  national  ideas. 

Authorities :  For  the  general  history  of\ the  period  see  Z>^^/</6'«r,  Seignobos,  and 
Fy ffe,c\tQdi  under  Ivccture  67.  In  addition  to  the  works  on  the  reign  of  Ivouis  Philippe 
by  Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  Thureau-Dangin,  Louis  Blanc,  Capefigue,  D^Haus- 
sonville,  HiUebrand,  IVeil and  Pierre,  cited  under  Lecture  69,  see  for  the  latter  part  of 
his  reign  and  for  other  points  touched  on  in  this  lecture,  Regnault,  Histoire  de  huit 
ans  (1840-48);  Guizot,  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  mon  temps ;  Odilon 
Barrot,  Memoires ;  Mazade,  Monsieur  Thiers  ;  Thiers,  Discours  parlementaires  ; 
Berry er,  Discours  parlementaires  ;  Lacombe,  Vie  de  Berry er ;  Barante,  Souvenirs; 
Due  de  Brogliey  Souvenirs  ;  Talleyrand,  Memoires  ;  Thirria,  Napoleon  III.  avant 
I'Empire ;  Rousset,  Conquete  de  I'Algerie,  and  Ideville,  Le  Marechal  Bugeaud. 
For  the  history  of  the  English  foreign  policy  see  Le  Strange,  Correspondence  of 


The  Revolution  of  February.  231 

Lord  Grey  and  the  Princess  Lievcn  ;  Dalling  and  As/i/ey,  Life  of  Lord  Palmerston; 
Torrens,  Life  of  Lord  Melbourne  ;  PVa/poie,  Life  of  Lord  John  Russell ;  Gordon^ 
Lord  Aberdeen  ;  Greville,  Memoirs  ;  Slockmar,  Memoirs,  and  Martin,  Life  of  the 
Prince  Consort.  For  the  history  and  development  of  the  Zollvcrein  see  Treitschke, 
Deutsche  Geschichte  im  neunzehntcn  Jahrhundert ;  Weber,  Der  dcutsche  Zollvcr- 
ein, Geschichte  seiner  Entstehung  uud  Entwickelung,  and  Festenberg-Packisch, 
Geschichte  des  Zollvercins  ;  for  Austria,  Mettemich,  Memoirs ;  Springer,  Ge- 
schichte GBsterreichs.and  Krones,  Geschichte  der  Neuzeit  CEsterreichs;  for  the  early 
years  of  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia,  Ranke,  Aus  dem  Brief- 
wechsel  Friedrich  Wilhelms  IV.  mit  Bunsen,  and  Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV.  (in  his 
Werke,  Vols.  50-52)  ;  Wagener,  Die  Politik  Friedrich  Wilhelms  IV.  and  Bieder- 
matm,  Dreissig  Jahre  deutscher  Geschichte;  and  for  the  war  with  the  Sonderbund, 
l^an  Muyden,  La  Suisse  sous  le  pacte  de  1815;  CrHineau-Joly,  Histoire  du  Sonder- 
bund ;  Dufour,  La  campagne  du  Sonderbund ;  Ddndliker,  Histoire  du  peuple 
Suisse,  and  Vulliemin,  Histoire  de  la  Confed^ation  Suisse. 


LECTURE    73. 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848  IN  FRANCE. 

Growing  unpopularity  of  the  Monarchy  of  July  during  the  adminis- 
tration of  Guizot  (1840- 1 848)  ;  the  government  alienated  even  the 
moderate  liberals  by  refusing  to  grant  the  smallest  measure  of  electoral 
reform  ;  while  its  rigidly  Bourgeois  and  Capitalist  sympathies  exasper- 
ated the  Democratic  and  Labor  parties. 

The  growth  of  democratic  »d  socialist  ideas  among  the  w^orking 
classes  of  France:  the  influencAf  Saint-Simon,  Fourier,  Proudhon,  etc. 

The  movements  for  parlianaerftary  reform  and  democratic  revolution 
in  1847  :  the  banquets  and  toasts  to  liberty,  equality  and  fraternity  ; 
Odilon  Barrot  and  Ledru-Rollin. 

The  Revolution  of  February,  1848  :  riots  in  Paris  (22  Feb.);  resigna- 
tion of  Guizot  (23  Feb.,  1848);  appointment  of  Bugeaud  as  command- 
ant of  Paris  ;  barricades  erected  in  the  streets  ;  Louis  Philippe  forbade 
Bugeaud  to  act;  he  abdicated  the  throne  (24  Feb.)  and  left  France. 

Significance  of  the  Revolution  of  February ;  overthrow  of  the  Bour- 
geois Monarchy. 


232  The  Se^Dnei  Ptmck  Rep^Bcr  /S0. 

The  mob  of  Paris  burst  into  the  Chambers  and  the  Hotel  de  Ville  ; 
proclamation  of  the  Republic  (26  Feb.)  ;  rejection  of  the  idea  of  the  re- 
gency to  be  held  by  the  Duchess  of  Orleans  during  the  minority  of  her 
son,  the  Comte  de  Paris  ;  formation  of  the  Provisional  Government  (24 
Feb.),  consisting  of  six  leading  republican  deputies,  threejournalists 
»  and  a  working  man,  Dupont  de  I'Kure,  Arago,  I^amartine.^I^edru-Rol- 
^0^  lin,  Cremieux,  and  Marie,  deputies,  Marrast,  Louis  Blanc,  and  Flogon, 
journalists,  and  Albert ;  Garnier- Pages  installed  as  Mayor  of  Paris. 

Importance  and  conduct  of  Lamartine  (b.  1792,  d.  1869)  as  provis- 
ional Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  of  Ledru-Rollin  (b.  1808,  d.  1874) 
as  provisional  Minister  of  the  Interior;  Lamartine  assured  Europe  that 
the  revolution  in  Paris  was  not  intended  to  encourage  revolution  else- 
where, while  Ledru-Rollin  imitated  the  extreme  policy  of  the  Conven- 
tion, attempted  to  appoint  pro-consuls  and  establish  public  workshops. 

The  extreme  republican  party  in  Paris  endeavored  to  influence  the 
elections,  which  were  taking  place  over  France,  in  favor  of  the  radicals 
by  numerous  riots :  the  riot  of  16  April,  1848  ;  General  Chan  gamier 
placed  in  command  of  the  garrison  and  National  Guard  of  Paris ;  his 
defeat  of  the  insurgents. 

Meeting  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  (27  April,  1848);  the  moderate 
.  character  and  antecedents  of  the  majority  of  its  members  ;  it  declared 
that  France  was  a  Republic  and  prepared  to  draw  up  a  republican  con- 
stitution on  conservative  lines  ;  it  maintained  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment in  office  ;  riot  of  15  May  in  Paris,  and  attempt  of  the  democratic 
party  to  overthrow  the  Constituent  Assembly  ;  suppression  of  the  riot 
and  flight  of  Louis  Blanc  (b.  18 13,  d.  1882). 

Critical  position  in  Paris  :  the  working  classes  of  the  Faubourg- 
Saint- Antoine  prepared  for  insurrection  ;  the  moderate  republicans  re- 
solved to  resist  ;  General  Cavaignac  (b.  1802,  d.  1857)  appointed  pro- 
visional War  Minister  (17  May)  ;  concentration  of  regular  troops  in 
Paris. 

Severe  fighting  in  Paris  (23-26  June)  :  storming  of  the  barricades  by 
the  troops  ;  Paris  declared  in  a  state  of  siege  ;  supreme  executive 
authority  entrusted  to  Cavaignac  ;  suppression  of  the  radical  party  in 
Paris. 

The  Constituent  Assembly,  now  that  peace  was  restored,  proceeded 


The  Prince  President  Lotus  Napoleon.  233 

to  draw  up  a  republican  constitution  :  the  Constitution  of  1848  placed 
the  supreme  exef^ntive  authority  in  the  hands  of  a  President  of  the  Re- 
public, elected  directly  by  the  people^  and  the  legislative  authority  in 
the  hands  of  a  single  Chamber.  ^*.^.*l^*.>6li!J2^^~~H 

Louis  Napoleon,  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte.  King  of  Holland,  and 
Hortense  de  Beauharnais,  and  nephew  of  the  first  Napoleon,  elected 
President  of  the  Republic  (10  Dec,  1848)  ;  he  received  5.562,834  votes, 
Cavaignac  1,469,166  votes,  Ledru-Rollin  377,236  votes,  Raspail  37,106, 
and  Lamartine  21,000. 

Character  and  previous  career  of  Louis  Napoleon  (b.  1808,  d.  1873)  : 
difficulties  of  his  position  ;  distrusted  by  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
and  both  feared  and  hated  by  the  extreme  republicans. 

Foreign  policy  of  the  Prince  President :  a  French  army,  under 
Oudinot,  sent  to  Rome,  which,  after  a  repulse  (30  April,  1849),  occu- 
pied Rome  (3  July),  overturned  the  Roman  Republic  and  reestablished 
the  authority  of  the  Pope. 

Dissolution  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  installment  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly  (28  May,  1849)  ;  the  position  of  parties  in  the 
new  Assembly  ;  the  majority  were  moderates,  in  favor  of  parliamentary 
government  after  the  English  system,  believers  in  limited  monarchy, 
and  very  suspicious  of  the  Prince  President,  w^hom  they  suspected  of 
planning  to  restore  the  Empire  ;  the  minority  called  itself  the  Mountain, 
and,  under  the  leadership  of  Ledru-Rollin,  hoped  to  establish  a  demo- 
cratic republic. 

The  deputies  of  the3Iountain  appealed  to  the  people  of  Paris  ;  insur- 
rection ot  13  June,  1849  ;  arrest  of  the  deputies  of  the  Mountain  ;  their 
expulsion  from  the  Assembly  ;  escape  of  Ledru-Rollin. 

The  majority  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  now  frankly  reactionary, 
endeavored  to  establish  a  bourgeois  republic  ;  influence  of  Thiers,  Ber- 
ryer,  Mole,  Montalembert  (b.  18 10,  d.  1870)  and  De  Broglie  ;  by  the 
law  of  31  May,  1850,  the  suffrage  was  restricted  to  three  years'  resi- 
dents in  a  commune  or  canton,  which  practically  disfranchised  the 
working  classes  ;  declaration  of  Thiers  on  this  subject. 

The  Legislative  Assembly  on  adjourning  left  a  permanent  commis- 
sion of  deputies  to  watch  the  proceedings  of  the  government :  disgust 
of  the  Prince  President  at  this  action  ;  his  resolution  to  appeal  to 
France  ;  his  first  provincial  tour. 


234  The  Coup  d'J^tat  of  2  December,  185 1. 

The  political  position  in  1851  :  the  incurable  distrust  between  the 
Prince  President  and  the  Assembly  ;  struggles  between  the  executive 
and  legislative  authority,  and  frequent  changes  of  ministry. 

The  Prince  President,  having  made  himself  popular  in  France  by 
provincial  tours,  declared  himself  in  favor  of  universal  suffrage  and  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people  ;  his  explanation  of  the  ideas  of  the  Empire  ; 
his  demand  that  the  Assembly  should  repeal  the  law  of  31  May,  1850 
(4  Nov.,  1851). 

The  Coup  d'E)tat  of  2  Dec,  1851  :  the  Prince  President  declared  the 
Legislative  Assembly  dissolved,  universal  suffrage  reestablished,  and 
Paris  in  a  state  of  siege ;  the  advisers  of  Louis  Napoleon  and  his 
agents;  his  half  brother,  the  Due  de  Morny  (b.  181 1,  d.  1865),  General 
de  Saint-Arnaud  (b.  i  798,  d.  1854),  Minister  of  War,  and  M.  de 
Maupas  (b.  1818,  d.  1888),  Prefect  of  Police  ;  arrest  of  the  leading  mem- 
bers of  the  Legislative  Assembly ;  the  troops  shoot  down  opponents  of 
the  Coup  d'Etat  in  Paris. 

The  Prince  President  submitted  a  new  Constitution  to  a  plebiscite  of 
the  people,  establishing  a  strong  executive  and  institutions  resembling 
those  of  the  Consulate  and  the  Empire  ;  the  Constitution  accepted  (21 
Dec.)  by  7,481,231  votes  out  of  8, 165,650  votes,  and  promulgated  14 
Jan.,  1852. 

The  Prince  President's  provincial  tour  of  1852 :  his  reception  ;  enthu- 
siasm in  the  army  ;  his  declaration  at  Bordeaux  (9  Oct.)  ''L' Empire, 
c'est  la  paix  "  ;  the  Senate  voted  the  reestablishment  of  the  Empire 
(7  Nov.);  it  was  voted  by  a  plebiscite  (22  Nov.),  and  the  Prince  President 
declared  himself  Napoleon  IILJgmperor  of  the  FrencKl(2  Dec,  1852). 

Authorities  :  On  the  history  of  the  second  French  Republic,  see  Gamier-Pa' 
ges,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  1848  ;  Louis  Blanc,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de 
1848 ;  Lamarfine,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  1848 ;  Pierre,  Histoire  de  la  R^- 
publique  de  1848  ;  La  GorcCj  Histoire  de  la  Seconde  Republique  frangaise  ;  Spuller, 
Histoire  parlementaire  de  la  Seconde  Republique  ;  with  Normanby,  A  Year  of 
Revolution  ;  Odilon  Barrot,  M^moires  ;  Falloux,  Me  moires  d'un  Royaliste  ;  Ber- 
ryer,  Discours  parlementaires  ;  Thiers,  Discours  parlementaires,  and  Veron,  M6- 
moires  d'un  bourgeois  ;  for  the  coup  d'etat  of  185 1,  see  Maupas,  Memoires  sur  le 
Second  Knipire  ;  Persigny,  Memoires  ;  Ollivier,  L' Empire  liberal ;  Kinglake,  The 
Invasion  of  the  Crimea ;  Victor  Hugo,  Histoire  d'un  crime  ;  Tenot,  Le  Coup 
d'l^tat ;  Jerrold,  Life  of  Napoleon  III.  ;  Forbes,  Life  of  Napoleon  the  Third  ;  Be- 
lord,  Histoire  du  Second  Empire,  and  Viel  Castel,  Memoires. 


Italy  from  iSjo  to  1848.  235 

LECTURE    74. 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF   1848  IN  ITALY. 

The  condition  of  Italy  from  the  suppression  of  the  insurrectionary 
movement  of  1830  by  Austria  to  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutions  of 
1848  :  the  work  of  the  Carbonari  and  of  other  secret  societies  ;  attempts 
made  upon  the  lives  of  the  Italian  princes,  and  repeated  outbreaks  in 
dififerent  cities  and  country  districts  ;  complication  caused  by  the  very 
existence  of  the  Papacy  ;  the  writings  of  Gioberti  (b.  1801,  d.  1851) 
and  Massimo  d'Azeglio  (b.  1798,  d.  1866). 

Double  tendency  to  be  perceived  in  the  popular  movements  in  Italy  : 
with  regayd^o  government  the  middle  classes  desired  representative 
institutions  and  limited  monarchy,  while  the  secret  societies  advocated 
pure  democracy  ;  withj^egardJoJJbejyjjityjoiLItaly,  one  section  desired 
a  f^eral  government  either  monarchical  or  republican,  while  the  other 
favored  an  Italy,  one  and  indivisible,  either  monarchical  or  republican  ; 
these  different  tendencies  prevented  partisans  of  the  national  spirit  and 
of  political  revolution  from  acting  harmoniously  together  ;  the  most 
influential  writer  and  thinker  was  Mazzini  (b.  1808,  d.  1872),  but  his 
advanced  republican  ideas  made  him  obnoxious  to  moderate  men. 

Conditions  of  the  different  Italian  states  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  in  1848 ;  the  severe  and  arbitrary  government  of 
Naples  and  Sicily  under  Ferdinand  II.  (1830-59),  afterwards  called 
King  Bomba  ;  unpopularity  of  the  Austrian  government  in  Lombardy 
and  Venetia  ;  Parma,  ruled  by  the  Empress  Mariej^ouise,  and  Modena, 
under  Duke  Francis  IV.  (1814-46)  and  Duke  Francis  V.,were  entirely 
under  Austrian  influence  ;  death  of  Marie  Louise  (18  Dec,  1847),  ^"^ 
accession  as  Duke  of  Parma  of  Charles  II.,  formerly  Duke  of  Lucca  ; 
the  government  of  Leopold  II.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  (1824-1859);  he 
purchased  Lucca  (1845),  ^'^^  granted  a  constitution  (1847);  Charles 
'^^^toi  (b.  1798,  d.  1849),  King  of  Sardinia  since  1831,  was  desirous  of 
setting  himself  at  the  head  of  the  national  Italian  movement,  but  feared 
the  republicans  and  the  Carbonari  ;  he  favored  parliamentary  govern- 
ment and  granted  a  constitution  to  his  kingdom  in  1846  ;  his  character 
and  ambition. 


236  The  Revolutioji  of  18^8  in  Italy. 

The  worst  governed  provinces  in  Italy  were  those  of  the  States  of 
the  Church,  in  which  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  ruled  in  the  most  arbitrary 
manner  with  cardinals,  bishops  and  priests  as  his  only  ministers  and 
administrators  ;  yet  it  was  in  the  States  of  the  Church  that  the  first  im- 
pulse was  given  to  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  ;  death  of 
Gregory  XVI.  (i  June,  1846). 

Election  of  Pope  Pius  IX. — Mastai-Ferretti — (16  June,  1846);  his 
known  liberal  and  national  ideas  ;  his  reforms  in  internal  administra- 
tion ;  he  reorganized  the  tribunals,  established  municipal  government, 
permitted  the  raising  of  civic  guards,  and  allowed  a  measure  of  liberty 
to  the  press  ;  he  proposed  a  customs -union  between  the  States  of  the 
Church,  Tuscany  and  Sardinia  ;  Metternich  protested  against  the  re- 
forming policy  of  Pius  IX.;  but  the  people  of  Rome  accused  him  of 
not  going  far  enough ;  a  Fundamental  Statute,  establishing  lay  gov- 
ernment and  ministerial  responsibility,  issued  (14  March,  1848). 

Outbreak  of  insurrection  at  Palermo  (12  Jan.,  1848),  which  spread 
through  the  whole  of  Sicily  ;  Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
forced  by  tumults  at  Naples  to  promise  a  constitution  (29  Jan.),  which 
was  promulgated  (10  Feb.). 

Effect  of  the  overthrow  of  Metternich  in  Italy  ;  the  people  of  Milan 
rose  in  insurrection  and  expelled  the  Austrian  garrison  (18-22  Mch., 
1848)  ;  formation  of  a  provisional  government  which  appointed  Gari- 
baldi (b.  1807,  d.  1882)  commandant  of  its  troops;  similar  movement 
in  Venice  (16-22  Mch.),  where  Daniel  Manin  (b.  1804,  d.  1857)  was 
elected  Dictator  ;  Francis  V.  driven  from  Modena  (21  March)  ;  Charles 
II.  driven  from  Parma  (20  March). 

Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia,  summoned  by  all  Northern  Italy, 
set  himself  at  the  head  of  the  National  movement  ;  he  entered  Milan 
(26  Mch.) ;  concentration  of  the  Austrian  troops  under  Radetzky 
(b.  1766,  d.1858);  the  Austrians  defeated  at  Goito  (8  Apr.);  Leopold  of 
Tuscany  compelled  by  his  people  to  send  troops  to  assist  Charles  Albert ; 
Ferdinand  II. ,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  forced  to  send  a  fleet  to  assist 
Venice  and  an  army  under  Pepe  to  join  Charles  Albert ;  the  papal  troops, 
under  Durando,  joined  the  Sardinians  ;  Charles  Albert  took  Peschiera 
(30  May);  reinforcements  demanded  by  Radetzky. 

Desperate  position  of  the  Austrians  in  Italy;  terms  offered  to  Charles 


^^L*  Italia  fara  da  se.**  237 

Albert ;  the  intervention  of  England  and  France  declined  ;  "  L'  Italia 
fara  da  se."  ""Q^iU^  wOU  ^  ^-^  oSu-^w*^  "  -  W-:l    cJU^  cS-!l.<iL>-3^, 

Pope  Pius  IX.  disavowed  the  action  of  General  Durando(29  April): 
Mamiani  appointed  Minister  of  the  Interior  of  the  States  of  the  Church 
(4  May). 

Ferdinand  II.  withdrew  his  constitution  and  dissolved  the  Neapolitan 
parliament  (15  May);  he  vigorously  pursued  the  war  with  the  Sicilian 
insurgents,  and  called  back  his  fleet  from  Venice,  and  his  army ;  never- 
theless, Pepe,  with  3,000  men,  threw  himself  into  Venice,  of  which  he 
took  military  command. 

Progress  of  the  revolution  in  Sicily  :  Settimo  (b.  1778,  d.  1863),  presi- 
dent of  the  Sicilian  Committee  (24  Jan.,  1848)  ;  services  of  Crispi ; 
Settimo  appointed  Lieutenant- General  of  Sicily  by  Ferdinand  II.  and 
a  Sicilian  Parliament  summoned  (6  March) ;  the  throne  of  Sicily  ofiered 
to  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Genoa,  second  son  of  Charles  Albert  (11  July)  ; 
his  refusal  to  accept  it ;  bombardment  of  Messina  (2-8  Sept.). 

Radetzky,  joined  by  Nugent  (b.  1777,  d.  1862),  defeated  Charles 
Albert  at  Custozza  (25  July)  and  occupied  Milan  (6  Aug.)  ;  armistice 
proclaimed  between  Sardinia  and  Austria  (9  Aug.);  gallant  defence  of 
Venice  ;  return  of  Francis  V.  to  Modena  (10  Aug.)  ;  the  Pope  dismissed 
Mamiani  (2  Aug.),  and  appointed  Rossi  (14  Sept.),  who  desired  to 
form  an  Italian  Federation. 

Assassination  of  Rossi  (15  Nov.)  ;  flight  of  the  Pope  to  Gaeta  (24 
Nov.)  ;  provisional  government  of  Rome  under  the  triumvirate  of  Gal- 
letti,  Camerata  and  Corsini  (11  Dec);  meeting  of  the  Roman  Consti- 
tuent Assembly  (5  Feb.,  1849)  :  proclamation  of  the  Roman  Republic 
{9  Feb.)  ;  vsolemn  appeal  of  Pius  IX.  to  the  Catholic  rulers  of  Austria, 
France,  Spain  and  the  Two  Sicilies  for  help  (18  Feb.,  1849)  ;  Mazzini 
made  dictator  with  Armellini  and  Safii  (30  March)  ; "garibaldi  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief. 

Progress  of  the  revolution  in  Tuscany  :  Montanelli  appointed  chief 
minister  (26  Oct.,  1848)  ;  a  liberal  constitution  granted  ;  flight  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Leopold  II.  to  Gaeta  ;  the  Florentine  Republic  proclaimed 
under  the  triumvirate  of  Montanelli,  Guerrazzi,  and  Mazzoni  (8  Feb., 
1849). 

Difficult  position  of  Charles  Albert :  forced  to  form  a  radical  ministry 


238  Failure  of  the  Italian  Revolutions, 

under  Rattazzi  (15  Dec,  1848)  ;  declared  the  armistice  at  an  end  and 
appealed  to  united  Italy  (12  March,  1849^  Radetzky  utterly  defeated 
Charles  Albert  at  Novara  (23  Mch.)  ;  abdication  of  Charles  Albert  in 
favor  of  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel ;  favorable  terms  of  peace  granted 
to  the  Sardinians  it  Au^. ). 

Triumphant  progress  of  the  Austrians  :  Francis  V.  of  Modena  com- 
pleted the  reoccupation  of  his  duchy  (April,  1849)  ;  overthrow  of  the 
Florentine  Republic  and  restoration  as  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  of  Leo- 
pold II.  (28  July),  who  withdrew  the  constitution  he  had  granted; 
Charles  III.,  to  whom  his  father  had  resigned  the  Duchy  of  Parma  (14 
March),  returned  to  Parma  (25  August) ;  capitulation  of  Venice  to  the 
Austrians  (24  August). 

Ferdinand  II.  cruelly  suppressed  the  Sicilian  insurrection  ;  surrender 
of  Palermo  to  the  Neapolitans  (11  May,  1849). 
y^  The  Prince  President  of  the  French  Republic,  afraid  of  allowing 
Austria  too  much  predominance  in  Italy,  sent  a  French  army  under 
Oudinot  to  Rome  :  repulse  of  the  French  (30  Apr.)  ;  the  siege  of  Rome  ; 
capture  of  Rome  by  the  French  (3  July)  ;  Garibaldi  withdrew  to  the 
mountains  where  his  troops  were  cut  up  by  the  Austrians  ;  return  of 
Pius  IX.  to  Rome  (12  Apr.,  1850)  and  reestablishment  of  the  Papal 
government  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal  Antonelli ;  a  French  garri- 
son retained  in  Rome. 

Causes  of  the  entire  and  disastrous  failure  of  the  Italian  revolutions 
in  1848:  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  King  of  Sardinia,  alone  maintained  par- 
liamentary government  in  his  dominions.  fi5-W^  Qjp    %ZU^ 

Authorities  :  On  the  Italian  insurrection,  see  Stillman,  The  Union  of  Italy  ; 
Martinengo  Cesar esco,  The  Liberation  of  Italy  ;  Thayer^  The  Dawn  of  Italian  In- 
dependence (1814-1849)  ;  Maurice,  The  Revolutionary  Movement  of  1848-49  in 
Italy,  Austria  and  Hungary;  Tivardni_  Storia  critica  del  Risorgimento  Italiano  ; 
Cantil,  Delia  Indipendenza  Italiana;  Ricciardi,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d'ltalie; 
Ulloa,  Guerre  de  I'ind^pendance  italienne ;  Perrens,  Deux  ans  de  revolution  en 
ItaHe ;  Pepe,  M^moires,  and  Histoire  des  revolutions  et  des  guerres  d'ltalie  en 
1847,  1848,  et  1849  ;  Balleydier,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  Rome;  Spada,  Storia 
dellajfivgluzione  di  Roma  e  della  restaurazione  del  governo  pontifico  (1846-49), 
3  vols.;  Farini,  The  Roman  State,  1815-50,  ed.  Gladstone;  Bianchi,  Storia  docu- 
mentata  della  diplomazia  Europea  in  Italia  ;  Costa  de  Beauregard,  Les  dernieres 
annees  du  Roi  Charles  Albert ;  Rattazzi,  Rattazzi  et  son  temps  ;  Mazzini,  Scritti, 


The  National  Spirit  in  the  Austrian  Dominio7ts.  239 

editi  ed  inediti ;  Nardi,  Giuseppe  Mazzini,  la  vita,  gli  scritti  c  le  dottrine;  Simoni^ 
Histoiredes  conspirations  mazziniennes  ;  Martin,  Daniel  Manin;  Errera,  La  vita  e 
i  tempi  de  Danielo  Manin,  and  Danielo  Manin  e  Vcnezia  ;  Manin,  I^ettere  ;  Nisco, 
Ferdinando  II.  eilsuo  regno;  La  Farina,  Storia  documentata  della  rivoluzione  di 
Sicilia  nel  1848-49;  Montanelli,  M^moires;  Caniu,  Storia  ragionata  e  documentata 
della  rivoluzione  Lombarda ;  Cattaneo,  ^'insurrection  de  Milan  en  1848;  Schonhals, 
Erinnerungen  eines  CE)sterreichischen  Veteranen,  translated  into  French  as  Cam- 
pagnes  d'ltalie  de  1848-49;  Della  Rocca,  Autobiography  of  a  Veteran ;  Garibaldi,  Me- 
moirs ;  Mario,  Garibaldi  e  i  suoi  tempi ;  Sirao,  Storia  della  rivoluzione  d'ltalia 
dal  1846  al  1866;  Riistow,  Der  italienische  Krieg  von  1848  und  1849,  and  Hubner,  Une 
ann^e  de  ma  vie. 


LECTURE    75.  '  n  I 


THE  REVOLUTION  OF   1848  IN  AUSTRIA. 

Internal  condition  of  the  Austrian  dominions  during  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  (1835-48)  ;  the  home  policy  of  Metternich  ;  he 
encouraged  the  national  spirit  in  the  different  provinces  of  the  Empire 
in  order  to  play  off  one  province  against  another,  but  he  sternly  re- 
pressed all  aspirations  for  self-government. 

The  growth  of  national  spirit  was  especially  perceptible  in  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  but  it  was  also  to  be  found  in  smaller  provinces,  such  as 
Transylvania,  Croatia  and  Galicia  ;  condition  of  the  German  provinces; 
the  diverse  nationalities  of  which  the  Empire  was  composed,  prevented 
any  tendency  towards  union,  and  encouraged  schemes  of  federation  or 
of  entire  independence. 

The  national  spirit  in  Htmgary  :  the  amount  of  local  self-government 
allowed  to  the  Magyars  ;  the  growth  of  Magyar  literature  and  of 
attachment  to  the  Magyar  language  ;  the  national  spirit  of  Hungary 
becomes,  under  the  guidance  of  its  men  of  letters,  also  democratic  ;  the 
Diet  of  1833  abolished  serfdom  ;  attitude  of  the  Magyars  towards  other 
nationalities  within  the  limits  of  Hungary  ;  influence  of  Szech^njf^, 
(b.  1792,  d.  1 860), ^Kossuth  (b.  1802,  d.  1894),  ^^  (b.  1803,  d.  1876) 
and  Petofi  (b.  1823^  d.  1849). 

The  national  spirit  in  Bohemia  :  revival  of  the  Czech  language  and 


240  The  Overthrow  of  Metternich. 

literature ;  the  Czechs  desired  to  place  themselves  at  the  head  of  the 
Austrian  Sfavs  ;  in  Bohemia,  as  in  Hungary,  the  national  spirit  became 
also  democratic,  and  demands  were  made,  not  oi)ly  for  national,  but 
also  for  popular  government;  influence  of  Dobrovski  (b.  1753,  d.  1829), 
Kollar(b.  1793,  d.  1852)  and  Palacky  (b.  1798,  d.  1876). 

The  German  spirit  concentrated  in  Vienna,  where  democratic  ideas, 
resembling  those  in  vogue  among  the  working  classes  in  Paris  and 
Berlin,  had  taken  deep  root. 

Effect  of  the  news  of  the  Revolution  of  February  in  Austria  :  insur- 
rection of  13  March  in  Vienna;  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  dismissed 
Metternich  from  office  ;  flight  of  the  disgraced  minister  to  England  ; 
Ficquelmont  appointed  minister  (20  March);  the  Emperor  promulgated 
a  representative  constitution  (25  April). 

Effect  of  the  fall  of  Metternich  upon  the  Austrian  provinces  :  general 
demand  for  liberty  and  popular  government. 

The  Hungarian  Diet  seized  the  opportunity  to  demand  the  formation 
of  a  responsible  Hungarian  ministry  with  entire  self-government;  the 
Emperor  yielded  (17  March),  and  the  Palatine  of  Hungary,  the  Arch- 
duke Stephen,  appointed  Louis  Batthyany  prime  minister,  with 
Kossuth  as  Minister  of  the  Interior  ;  delight  of  the  Magyars  at  this 
success ;  a  Constituent  Diet  summoned  to  draw  up  a  constitution  for 
Hungary. 

The  Emperor  further  held  out  hopes  of  constitutions  and  self-govern- 
ment to  the  Slavonic  Provinces  (March  to  April)  :  a  Pan-Slavonic  as- 
sembly summoned  to  meet  at  Prague  on  31  May. 

Effect  of  the  insurrection  in  the  Austrian  province?  in  Italy  :  defeat 
of  Radetzky  at  Goito  (8  April) ;  the  Emperor  obliged  to  strip  his  home 
dominions  of  troops  in  order  to  send  reinforcements  to  Radetzky. 

Dissatisfaction  of  the  people  of  Vienna  at  the  prospect  of  the  Austrian 
Empire  being  split  into  autonomous  provinces  :  disgust  of  the  working 
classes  at  the  non-recognition  of  democratic  principles  ;  dismissal  of 
Ficquelmont  (4  May)  ;  second  popular  insurrection  in  Vienna  (15  May); 
a  Constituent  Assembly  for  the  whole  Austrian  Empire  called  to  meet 
in  Vienna  ;  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  escaped  to  Innsbruck  (17  May)  and 
threw  himself  upon  the  fidelit}^  of  the  Tyrolese. 

Desperate  position  of  the  Austrian  monarchy  :  seeming  approach  of 


The  Revolution  of  184.8  in  Austria.  241 

disintegration  ;  the  strength  of  the  opposition  to  Austria  in  Italy, 
Hungary  and  Bohemia;  attitude  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort  towards 
the  Hapsburgs;  desire  expressed  to  keep  Austria  out  of  reconstituted 
Germany. 

In  the  diversity  of  aims  of  the  dififerent  revolutions  the  Hapsburg 
monarchy  found  safety  ;  the  Emperor  Ferdinand,  to  please  his  German 
subjects,  resolved  to  act  vigorously  against  the  Slavs. 

Insurrection  of  the  Poles  at  Cracow  X26  Apr.)  suppressed;  Francis 
Stadion  (b.  1806,  d.  1853)  pacified  Galicia  and  granted  reforms. 

The  Pan-Slavonic  Congress  opened  by  Palacky  at  Prague  (2  June); 
a  popular  demonstration  against  Windischgrat^(b.  1787,  d.  1862;,  the 
Austrian  governor  of  Prague,  ended  In'stree't-fightrng  (12-14  June); 
bombardment  of  the  city  (15-17  June);  end  of  the  Pan-Slavonic  Con- 
gress ;  reduction  of  Bohemia  to  obedience. 

In  Transylvania  the  Magyars  and  Germans,  who  controlled  the  prov- 
incial Estates,  voted  to  unite  Transylvania  with  Hungary  (30  May), 
because  the  Romanian  population  demanded  equal  rights  in  the  gov- 
ernment ;  an  insurrection  in  the  Danubian  provinces  (22-25  June) 
brought  about  the  occupation  of  those  provinces  by  the  Russians  and 
the  Turks. 

At  the  demand  of  the  southern  Slavs  the  Emperor  appointed  Jelia- 
chich  (b.  1 801,  d.  1859),  Ban  of  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia  (23 
Mar.);  popular  movement  for  a  united  kingdom  of  the  southern  Slavs, 
independent  of  Hungary  ;  the  Hungarian  ministry  persuaded  the  Em- 
peror to  disgrace  Jellachich  (10  June). 

Progress  of  the  revolution  in  Hungary  ;  meeting  of  the  Constituent 
Diet  (5  July);  the  new  Hungarian  constitution  ;  influence  of  Kossuth  ; 
the  Magyars  issued  oppressive  decrees  against  the  Slavs  and  Romanians 
in  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Dalmatia,  Transylvania  and  the  Banat  of 
Temesvar ;  insurrections  in  those  districts  against  the  Magyars  ;  the 
Russians  in  Transylvania. 

The  Constituent  Assembly,  containing  representatives  of  all  parts  of 
the  Empire,  except  Hungary,  met  at  Vienna  (22  July);  the  Archduke 
John,  who  had  been  elected  Vicar  of  the  Empire  at  Frankfort  (29  June), 
returned  to  represent  the  Emperor  at  Vienna;  the  Constituent  Assembly 
abolished  the  corvde,  noble-land  and  other  relics  of  feudalism. 


242  WindLSchgratz  a?id  Schwar 2671  berg. 

After  the  news  of  the  victory  of  Custozza  (25  July),  the  Emperor 
resolved  to  act  more  firmly  against  Hungary  ;  he  reentered  Vienna 
(12  Aug.);  he  restored  Jellachich  to  all  his  dignities  (4  Sept.);  Jellach- 
ich  invaded  Hungary  (9  Sept.);  the  Diet  prepared  to  resist  and  chose 
Kossuth,  President  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  (22  Sept.);  the 
Palatine  of  Hungary,  the  Archduke  Stephen,  refused  to  obey  the  Diet 
and  escaped  to  Vienna  (24  Sept.);  I^amberg,  who  was  sent  to  replace 
the  Palatine,  murdered  at  Pesth  (28  Sept);  the  Emperor  declared  the 
Hungarian  Diet  dissolved,  appointed  Jellachich,  Commissioner  Plenipo- 
tentiary in  Hungary,  and  ordered  the  army  to  suppress  the  revolt  (3 
Oct.). 

Third  insurrection  in  Vienna  (6  Oct.);  sympathizers  with  the  Mag- 
yars^ attempted  to  prevent  troops  from  reinforcing  Jellachich  in  Hun- 
gary ;  murder  of  Latour,  the  Minister  of  War  ;  flight  of  the  Emperor 
to  Olmiitz  ;  he  directed  the  Constituent  Assembly  to  leave  Vienna  (20 
Oct.)  and  to  assemble  at  Kremsier  ;  only  the  Slav  deputies  obeyed  ;  the 
German  deputies  remained  in  Vienna  to  form  a  provisional  government ; 
they  negotiated  with  the  German  Parliament  at  Frankfort,  which  recog- 
nized them  and  sent  Robert  Blum  and  two  other  deputies  to  their  as- 
sistance ;  Jellachich,  from  Hungary,  and  Windischgratz,  from  Prague, 
hastened  against  the  insurgents  ;  bombardment  of  Vienna  ;  attempt  of 
the  Magyars  to  relieve  the  city  ;  Windischgratz  entered  Vienna  (31 
Oct.),  established  martial  law,  and  shot  Robert  Blum  (8  Nov.);  wrath 
of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort. 

/Schwarzenberg  (b.  1800,  d.  1852)  appointed  chief  minister  (21  Nov.); 

reopening  of   the  Constituent  Assembly  at  Kremsier  (22   Nov.),   but 

\     Schwarzenberg  occupied  it  in  aimless  discussions  ;    abdication  of  the 

AXiTEuiperor  Ferdinand  (2  Dec.)  in  favor  of  his  nephew  Francis  Joseph  (b. 

y  1830). 

^  Vigorous  policy  of  Schwarzenberg  :  Kossuth  and  the  Diet  forced  to 

withdraw  from  Pesth  to  Debreczin  (i  Jan.,  1849)  ;  Windischgratz  and 
Jellachich  occupied  Pesth  (5  Jan.)  ;  formation  of  Hungarian  armies, 
placed  under  the  command  of  Dombrovski,  Bem  and  Gorgei;  Schwarz- 
enberg dissolved  the  Diet  of  Kremsier  (4  Mar.)  and  promised  a  unitary 
constitution  to  the  Austrian  Empire  and  the  recognition  of  the  equality 
of  the  various  nationalities  ;   Kossuth  and  the  Diet  declared  the  inde- 


End  of  the  Insurrection  in  Hungary,  243 

pendence  of  Hungary  (14  Apr.) ;  Kossuth  chosen  Governor- President ; 
Gorgei  recaptured  the  fortress  of  Buda  (21  May)  ;  return  of  the  Hun- 
garian government  to  Pesth  (5  June). 

The  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  announced  (i  May,  1849)  that  the  Tsar 
Nicholas  had  consented  to  assist  in  subduing  the  Magyars  ;  a  Russian 
army  under  Paskievitch  entered  Hungary  (May)  ;  the  armies  under 
Paskievitch,  Haynau,  Nugent  and  Jellachich  defeated  the  Hungarian 
armies  and  drove  them  toward  the  Turkish  frontier  ;  Kossuth  resigned 
in  favor  of  Gorgei  (11  Aug.)  and  escaped  into  Turkey  ;  capitulation  of 
Gorgei  at  Vildgos  (13  Aug.);  Klapka  held  out  at  Komorn  until  27  Sept., 
when  he  was  forced  to  sign  a  capitulation  by  which  he  surrendered  the 
place  (4  Oct.)  ;  atrocities  committed  by  Haynau  ;  execution  of  Batthy- 
any  and  the  leading  Magyar  generals  (6  Oct.)  ;  end  of  the  insurrection 
in  Hungary. 

End  of  the  insurrection  in  Italy  :  capture  of  Venice  (24  Aug.,  1849). 

The  German  policy  of  Schwarzenberg  :  his  attitude  toward  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Frankfort  ;  he  prevented  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia 
from  accepting  the  imperial  throne  offered  to  him  by  the  Parliament, 
and  insisted  upon  the  right  of  Austria  to  be  treated  as  a  constituent 
part  of  Germany. 

Authorities :  Leger,  Histoire  de  rAutriche-Hongrie,  translated  by  Hill ;  Mau-* 
rice.  The  Revolutionarj-  Movement  of  1848-49  in  Italy,  Austria  and  Hungary  ;  £al- 
/^jj'fi?/>/^""HTstoire"^s  Revolutions  de  I'Empire  de  I'Autriche  ;  Piliersdorf,  Riick- 
blick  auf  die  politische  Bewegung  in  CEsterreich  in  den  Jahren  1848  und  1849 ; 
Ficqiielmont,  Aufklarungen  iiber  die  Zeit  vom  20  Miirz  bis  zum  4  Mai  1848 ;  Frobely 
Briefe  iiber  die  Wiener  Oktober-Revolution,  mil  Notizen  iiber  die  letzten  Tage 
Robert  Blums  ;  Auerbach,  Tagebuch  aus  Wien  ;  Hubner,  Une  Anti6e  de  ma  Vie  , 
Helfert,  Geschichte  CEsterreichs  vom  Ausgange  des  Wiener  Oktober-Aufstandes ; 
Berger,  Felix,  Fiirst  zu  Schwarzenberg ;  Windischgrdtz,  Eine  Lebens-Skizze,  aus 
den  Papieren  eines  Zeit-genossen  der  Sturm jahre  1848  und  1849;  Reschauer,  Das 
Jahr,  1848;  Bach,  Die  Wiener  Revolution,  1848;  Yranyi  and  Chassin,  Histoire 
politique  de  la  Revolution  de  Hongrie  en  1847-49  ;  Bur}\  Souvenirs  et  R^cits 
des  Campagnes  d'Autriche  ;  Martin,  Guerre  de  Hongrie  en  1848  et  1849 ;  Riistow, 
Geschichte  des  ungarischcn  Insurrectionskrieges  in  den  Jahren  1848  und  1849 ; 
Gorgei,  Mein  I^eben  und  Wirken  in  Ungarn  ;  Klapka,  Der  Nationalkrieg  in  Un- 
garn  und  Siebenbiirgen,  of  which  there  is  an  English  translation,  and  Kossuth^ 
Memoirs. 


244  Insurrections  in  Berlin  a?id  Munich. 

IvECTURE   76. 


THE  REVOLUTION   OF   1848  IN  GERMANY. 

Effect  of  the  Revolution  of  February  in  Germany  :  general  desire  for 
£0^ulaT_government  in  Western  Germany  ;  the  states  upon  the  Rhine 
and  in  the  former  kingdom  of  Westphalia  were  especially  forward  in 
this  direction  ;  there  had  been  numerous  riots  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  Hesse- 
Cassel  and  Brunswick;  as  in  Italy,  the  natiqnal  spirit  and  the  demo- 
cratic movement  were  sometimes  in  harmony  and  sometimes  opposed 
to  each  other  ;  one  section  of  advocates  of  German.jtuuly_loQk£d_la 
Prussia  to  lead  them  ;  the  other,  which  was  more  democratic,  hoped  for 
an  independent  and  ppsgibly  republican  German  nation.  ^tsl^l^^Jlil^itl*'^ 

Both  the  national  and  the  democratic  spirit  were  most  evident  in  the 
smaller  states  and  in  Rhenish  Prussia  :  but  they  were  also  developed  to 
some  extent  in  the  South  German  states  of  Bavaria  under  King  Eouis 
I.  (1825- 1 848),  of  Wiirtemberg  under  King  William  I.  (18 16-1864), 
and  of  Baden  undei  the  Grand  Duke  Charles  Leopold  (1830-1852), 
while  in  Hanover  under  Ernest  I.  (i  837-1 851)  they  were  especially  de- 
veloped. 

The  share  of  the  German  universities  in  promoting  the  national  and 
liberal  spirit ;  the  dismissal  of  Gervinus,  Dahlmann,  Ewald  and  the 
two  Grimms,  from  their  chairs  at  Gottingen,  for  protesting  against  the 
abolition  of  the  Hanoverian  constitution  by  Ernest  I.  in  1837. 

The  first  effect  of  the  Revolution  of  February  was  seen  in  risings  in 
the  great  cities,  similar  to  those  which  occurred  in  Paris  and  in  Vienna  ; 
the  most  important  of  the  risings  were  in  Berlin  and  in  Munich. 

The  first  insurrection  in  Berlin  (15-19  March,  1848):  Frederick  Wil- 
liam IV.  (b.  1795,  d.  1 861)  gave  way  before  the  popular  feeling;  sent  his 
brother  and  heir.  Prince  William  (b.  1797,  d.  1888),  who  was  suspected 
of  opposition  to  popular  wishes,  to  England;  convoked  the  States-Gen-' 
erai,  and  summoned  a  Constituent  Assembly  to  draw  up  a  constitutiotl 
for  Prussia  (22  March).  i 

Insurrection  in  Munich  against  King  Louis  I.  (b.  1786,  d.  1868),  who 
was  accused  of  showing  too  much  favor  to  his  mistress,  Lola  Montes  ; 


The  Parliament  of  Frankfort,  245 

he  abdicated  the  throne  (20  March)  in  favor  of  his  son  Maximilian 
Joseph  II.  (b.  181 1,  d.  1864),  who  promised  reforms. 

A  group  of  German  patriots  and  unionists  met  at  Heidelberg  (5!^ 
March)  and  summoned  a  Vor-Parlament,  which  assembled  at  Frankfort  l  vw^ 
(31  March);  this  assembly' convoked  a  Constituent  Parliament,  to  be  V^ 
elected  by  universal  suffrage  by  the  whole  of  Germany,  which  should  I  ^ 
organize  a  federal  German  government  under  a  monarch  ;  it  was  re-  1  ^ 
solved  that  the  decisions  of  this  Constituent  Parliament  should  be  W' 
final,  and  not  subject  to  the  control  of  the  Federal  Diet.  y^ 

The  Federal  Diet,  established  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  withdrew 
its  decrees  of  1832-34,  controlling  state  governments,  and  then  ceased 
to  oppose  the  new  movement. 

In  the  face  of  the  strength  of  the  revolutionary  movement  the  Ger- 
man Princes  permitted  elections  to  the  Constituent  Parliament. 

Meeting  of  this  Parliament  in  St.  Paul's  church  at  Frankfort  (18  »^ 
May,  1848),  with  Heinrich  von  Gagern  (b.  1799,  d.  1880)  as  its  presi- 
dent;  it  elected  the  Archduke  John  of  Austria  as  Vicar  of  the  Empire  j^ 
(29  June);  he  took  office  (12  July),  dissolved  the  Federal  Diet,  and 
appointed  Schmerling  chief  minister;  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort, 
with  long  debates,  drew  up  the  "Grundrechte,"  or  bases  of  a  German 
Constitution  (July-Oct.)  ;  the  undemocratic  nature  of  this  scheme 
caused  protests  from  many  of  the  cities  of  Germany.        ^^^^  '""^-^^-''^'^^^'^X^c^ZX, 

The  position  in  Prussia  :  Frederick  William  IV.  took  advantage  of 
the  condition  of  affairs  in  Denmark  to  stand  forward  as  the  defender  of 
German  interests. 

Death  of  Christian  VIII.  of  Denmark  and  accession  of  Frederick  VII. 

(20  Jan.,  1848);   the  king  promised  (28  Jan.)  to  summon  a  Constituent 

Assembly,  chosen  by  universal  suffrage,  to  draw  up  a  Constitution 

which  should  unify  Denmark  and  the  Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Hol- 

stein,  in  spite  of  the  latter  being  parts  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  ; 

wrath  in  Germany  at  this  news  ;  insurrection  in  the  duchies  (18  Mar.); 

jdemand  made  for  the  entire  separation  of  Schleswig- Holstein  from  Den- 

Imark  and  their  union  with  Germany  ;  provisional  government  for  the 

■duchies  established  by  tne  insurgents  at  Kiel  (24  Mar.);  the  Duke  of 

Augustenburg  set  himself  at  the  head  of  this  opposition  in  the  two 

duchies  ;  the  Danes  routed  the  insurgents  near  Flensburg  (9  April), 


246  The  Revolution  of  184.8  in  Gennany. 

but  Prussia,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort,  invaded 
the  duchies,  defeated  the  Danish  army  (23  Apr.),  and  had  almost  con- 
quered the  whole  of  Denmark,  when  the  Great  Powers  intervened  and 
insisted  on  the  signature  of  the  Armistice  of  Malmo  (26  Aug.). 

Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia,  though  he  showed  himself  by  his 

conduct  in  Denmark  in  favor  of  German  interests,  also  showed  himself 

the  enemy  of  democracy ;  at  the  request  of  the  Parliament  of  Frank- 

^'^^^Tort  he  sent  Prussian  troops  to  that  city  to  put  down  a  republican  insur- 

'TV    rection  (18  Sept.),  and  then,  also  at  their  request,  put  down  democratic 

*'^*^^.risings  throughout  the  Rhenish  territories. 

^*'**^^ 'Second  insurrection  in  Berlin  (31  Oct.,  1848);  the  king  appointed 
Brandenburg  (b.  1792,  d.  1850)  and  ManteufFel  (b.  1805,  d.  1882)  his 
ministers  (3  Nov.),  declared  Berlin  in  a  state  of  siege  (10  Nov.;,  dis- 
solved the  Prussian  Constituent  Assembly  which  had  shown  in  the 
Junker  party  a  strong  minority  opposed  to  democratic  ideas  (5  Dec), 
and  issued  of  his  own  authority  a  new  constitution  for  Prussia,  giving 
a  moderate  amount  of  representative  government  C5  Dec). 

lyater  history  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort ;  Gagern  succeeded 
Schmerling  as  chief  minister  (15  Dec,  1848)  ;  completion  of  the  new 
German  Constitution  (3  Feb.,  1849),  with  two  chambers,  the  Volkhaus, 
elected  by  universal  suffrage,  and  the  Staatenhaus,  chosen  by  the  par- 
liaments of  the  different  states  ;  it  recognized  no  direct  representation 
of  the  German  princes,  and  gave  to  the  supreme  executive  authority 
only  a  suspensive  veto. 

The  question  of  the  admission  of  Austria,  with  her  non-German  popu- 
lations, as  part  of  the  new  German  Empire  ;  it  was  resolved  that  Aus- 
tria should  be  completely  excluded  (14  Jan.,  1849);  the  imperial  crown 
offered  to  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia  (28  Mar.);  he  declined  to 
accept  unless  invited  by  the  princes  of  Germany  (3  Apr.),  and  eventu- 
ally, under  the  influence  of  Schwarzenberg,  refused  unconditionally 
(28  Apr.). 

Indignation  of  Schwarzenberg  at  the  decree  of  14  Jan.;  he  with- 
drew the  Austrian  deputies  from  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort  (5  Apr.). 

Last  days  of  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort ;  Gagern  resigned  office 
(10  May),  and  with  his  followers  formed  a  secession  parliament  which 
met  at  Gotha  (26-28  June);  Prussia  withdrew  its  deputies  (14  May); 


Failure  of  the  Germaii  Revolutions.  247 

the  Parliament,  reduced  to  105  members,  forced  to  leave  Fr^kfort  (30 
May);  it  met  at  Stuttgart  and  eventually  was  broken  up  by  the  King  of 
Wiirtemberg  (18  June). 

Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia  lent  troops  to  the  Kings  of  Saxony 
and  Hanover  to  establish  order  in  their  dominions  (June)  ;  under  the 
command  of  Prince  William  of  Prussia  order  was  also  reestablished  by 
Prussian  soldiers  in  Baden  and  along  the  Rhine  (July). 

Continuation  of  the  Danish  war  :  Frederick  VII.  of  Denmark  granted 
a  liberal  constitution  (5  June,  1849);  gallant  struggle  of  the  Danes 
against  the  Prussians;  conclusion  of  peace  (2  July,  1850);  it  was 
eventually  arranged  that  the  Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  should 
be  garrisoned  by  a  joint  force  of  Austrians  and  Prussians,  and  that 
their  fate  should  be  decided  by  a  conference  of  the  Great  Powers. 

Result  of  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Germany;  entire 
failure  both  of  the  democratic  party  and  of  the  supporters  of  the  parlia- 
mentary system  ;  postponement  of  the  unity  of  Germany. 

Authorities  :  There  are  several  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Parliament  of 
Frankfort,  of  which  the  most  complete  is  Wigard,  Stenographische  Bericht,  9 
vols.;  see  also  Duncker,  Zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Reichsversammlung  in 
Frankfurt ;  Haym,  Die  deutsche  Nationalversammlung ;  Raumer,  Briefe  aus 
Frankfurt  und  Paris ;  Biedermann,  Erinnerungen  aus  der  Paulskirche ;  Ranke^ 
Politische  Denkschriften  aus  den  Jahren  1848-185 1  (Wcrke,  vols.  49,  50);  Deym^ 
Graf  Deym  und  die  CEsterreichische  Frage  in  der  Paulskirche ;  Becker,  Die  Reak- 
tion  in  Deutschland  gegen  die  Revolution  von  1848  ;  Syhel,  Die  Begriindung  des 
deutschen  Reich es ;  Moltke,  Geschichte  des  Krieges  gegen  Danemark,  1848-49, 
and  Bunsen,  Memoirs. 


LECTURE  77, 


EUROPE  AFTER  THE  REVOLUTIONS^  1848. 

The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  ^n  England  ;  the  Chartists  ; 
results  of  the  abolition  of  the  Corn -laws.  ^^  rTl^ 

The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  -W^Wira  :  the  reign  of 
William  II.  (1840-49)  ;  succeeded  by  William  III.  (17  March,  1849) ; 


248  ^/^ g/^  '         The  Danubian  Proviiices  in  184.8. 

the  representative  constitution  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  re- 
modelled in  a  more  liberal  sense;  administration  of  Thorbecke  (b.  1798, 
d.  1872). 

The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Belgium  :  excitement  caused 
by  the  news  of  the  Revolution  of  February  ;  Leopold  I.  evaded  a  re- 
publican movement  by  skillful  policy^ ;  his  ability  as  a  parliamentary 


sovereign.    ;?Xi^:;:i^i^(&r:^*^^r*:^ 

The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  the  two  Danubian  provinces: 
growth  of  national  Romanian   sentiment  and   of  liberalism;  attitude 

CtD'wards  the  Slavs  and  Magyars  ;  resentment  against  Russia  ;  influence 
of  France  ;  deposition  of  Alexander  Ghica  and  election  of  George 
^^.Bibescoas  Hospodar  of  Wallachia  ri8zi2^  :  attempted  insurrection  at 
Jassy  (27  March,  1848);  prudent  conduct  of  Michael  Stourza,  Hospodar 
of  Moldavia  ;  insurrection  at  Bucharest  (22  June,  1848)  ;  abdication  of 
Bibescc  (25  June)  ;  intervention  of  Russia  and  the  Turks  ;  Ri^ssian 
and  Turkish  troops  occupied  the  two  provinces;  by  the  Convention  of 
Balta-Liman  (12  May,  1849),  the  hospodarship  for  seven  years  was 
revived,  the  assemblies  of  boyars  were  suppressed  and  replaced  by 
divans  nominated  by  the  princes,  and  Russian  and  Turkish  troops  were 
to  garrison  the  two  provinces  until  they  were  organized;  resignation  of 
Michael  Stourza  ;  appointment  of  Gregory  Ghica  as  Hospodar  of 
-^Moldavia,  and  of  Barbe  Stirbeiu  as  Hospodar  of  Wallachia. 
rV  A^  Influence  exercised  by  Prussia  in  Germany  after  the  suppression  of 
f\A  the  revolutionary  movement :  Frederick  William  IV.  hoped  to  exclude 
Austria^  and  to^  be  chosen  Emperor  by  the  pnnces5llG^5?^-By  5  the 
League  of  the  Three  Kings — Prussia.  Saxony  and  Hanover  (26  May<^^ 
1849)  ;  scheme  of  a  Restricted  Union  ;  Prussia  prepared  a  scheme  for 
a  united  Germany  under  her  leadership  to  be  submittted  to  a  revived 
German  Parliament  at  Erfurt  and  to  the  German  princes ;  only  the 
petty  princes  accepted  the  Prussian  scheme. 

Austria,  having  put  down  all  rebellion  and  supported  by  Russia,  re- 
solved to  intervene  :  the  Archduke  John  resigned  his  authority  as  Vicar 
of  the  Empire  to  a  committee  of  four,  appointed  half  by  Austria  and  half 
by  Prussia  (20  Dec,  1849). 

Beust's  scheme  of  a  Middle  Germany  :  treaty  of  alliance  made  be- 
tween Saxony,  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  (27  Feb.,  1850). 


^ 


Austria  and  Prussia  after  184.8.  249 

The  Parliament  of  Erfurt  (20  Mar.-29  Apr.,  1850)  :  only  attended  by^  V\ 
Prussia  and  representatives  of  the  petty  princes  ;  part  played  by  Bis-*  <k 
juaickCb.  1815,  d.  1898)  ;  the  Parliament  refused  to  accept  the  Prussian/ ^J*t> 
scheme,  followed  by  a  similar  refusal  by  the  German  princes,  who  had 
been  assembled  at  Berlin  (8  May). 

Growing  influence  of  Austria  in  German  affairs  during  the  ministry  of 
Schwarzenberg :  ad  interim  revival  of  the  Diet  of  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation or  Bundestag  (2  Sept.,  1850),  which  undertook  to  deal  with 
the  disturbances  in  Schleswig-Holstein  and  Hesse-Cassel ;  opposition  } 
of  Prussia  ;  approach  of  war ;  the  Prussian  and  the  German  federal 
troops,  supported  by  Austria,  faced  each  other  in  Hesse-Cassel;  the  Tsar 
Nicholas  intervened  and  threatened  to  attack  whichever  side  began 
war. 

Frederick  William  IV.  yielded  :  Manteuffel  (b.  1805,  d.  1882)  ap- 
pointed provisional  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  (2  Nov.,  1850),  and 
Minister- President  (19  Dec,  1850);  the  Convention  of  Olmiitz  (29  Nov., 
1850);  apologies  of  Prussia;  r3storation  of  the  Bundestag  (30  May, 
1851)  ;  T^ifyinfirrk  appointed  PrussJan  representative  in  the  Bundestag 
at  Frankfort. 

Negotiations  for  the  renewal  of  the  ZoUverein  :  endeavors  of  Austria 
to  enter  the  Union ;  opposition  of  Prussia  ;  the  Steuerverein  declared      ^ 
its  readiness  to  enter  the  ZoUverein  Ty  Sept..  i8'^i)  :  reconstitution  of  ^  ^ 
the  ZoUverein  on  this  basis,  with  Austria  excluded  (4  Apr.,  1853). 

General  reaction  in  Germany  :  most  of  the  German  princes  withdrew 
or  modified  the  constitutions  they  had  granted  in  1848  ;  the  Bundestag 
repudiated  the  "  Grundrechte  "  decreed  by  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort 
(23  Aug.,  1851). 

The  reaction  in  Prussia  :  repressive  administration  of  Manteuffel ; 
Prince  William  commenced  to  reorganize  the  army. 

The  reaction  in  Austria  ;  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  withdrew  the 
Constitution  of  4  March,  1849  (31  Dec,  1851);  death  of  Schwarzenberg 
(5  April,  1852)  ;  appointment  of  Buol-Schauenstein  as  chief  Austrian 
minister. 

Temporary  settlement  of  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question  :  Frederick 
VII.,  of  Denmark,  issued  a  unitary  constitution  for  all  his  dominions 
(28  Jan.,  1852)  ;  Prince  Christian  of  Gliicksburg  recognized  as  heir  to 
throne  of  Denmark  by  the  Conference  of  London  (8  May,  1852). 


250  ,  ^  ^    The  Emperor  Napoleoji  III. 

^  The  institutions  of  the  Second  Empire  in  France  :  relations  of  the 
government  to  the  Council  of  State,  the  Senate  and  the  I^egislative  j^ 
Body  ;  while  granting  the  widest  extension  of  the  franchise  for  electing    ^ 
the  lyCgislative  Body,  the  administration_s^ematically  interfered  to  pro- 
mote the  election  of  government  candidatesT^^^f^g^u^^L'^i^^^' 

Napoleon  III.  and  his  ministers  :  the  Bonapartists  and  some  of  the 
partisans  of  the  Monarchy  of  July  rallied  to  him,  but  he  had  to  face  the 
opposition  of  the  Legitimists  and  the  Republicans  ;  he  was  unfortunate 
in  the  selection  of  ministers  and  had  to  make  use  of  men  of  doubtful   ^^ 
honesty  in  the  work  of  administration  ;   the  influence  of  the  Due  de  )  ^ 
Morny,  Persigny  (b.  1808,  d.  1872),  Rouher  and  Maupas. 

Parliamentary  opposition  during  the  Second  Ernpire  :  Thiers ;  exile 
or  deportation  of  the  leading  Republicans.  |;t2^^^  .  ^^^^    ^^^ 

Attitude  of  the  Great  Powers  towards  the  Second  Empire  :  England, 
hoping  for  the  assistance  of  France  in  the  settlement  of  the  Eastern 
Question,  at  once  recognized  him  as  Emperor  ;  the  Tsar  Nicholas  recog- 
nized him  in  an  insulting  fashion,  and  was  followed  by  Austria  and 
Prussia  (6  Jan.,  1853);  Napoleon's  first  foreign  ministers;  Drouyn  de 
Lhuys  (b.  1805,  d.  1881)  and  Walewski  (b.  1810,  d.  1868). 

Being  unable  to  obtain  the  hand  of  a  foreign  princess,  Napoleon  III. 
married  Eugenie  de  Montijo.  Comtesse  de  Teba  (29  Jan.,  1853). 

Internal  policy  of  Napoleon  III.  :  he  professed,  owing  to  his  election 
hy  plSbiscite,  to  represent  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  and  stood  forth 
as  the  opponent  of  bourgeois  or  middle  class  politics  ;  he  exploited  the 
wealth  of  France  in  extravagant  buildings  and  public  works  ;  Paris  re- 
built by  Haussmann  ;  corruption  of  the  administration  ;  attempts  of 
Napoleon  III.  to  blind  the  people  by  a  vigorous  foreign  policy. 

Foreign  policy  of  Napoleon  III. ;  though  he  declared  the  Empire  to 
mean  peace,  he  really  desired  war,  in  order  to  establish  himself  firmly 
at  home  and  abroad. 

Authorities  :  For  the  general  history  of  this  period  see,  in  addition  to  Seigno- 
bos,  Debidour,  and  Fyffe,  cited  under  Lecture  67;  Rothan,  L' Europe  et  I'avenement 
du  Second  Empire  ;  Vitzthum  von  Eckstddt,  Berlin  und  Wien  in  den  Jahren  1845- 
1852,  and  Viel-Castel,  Memoirs  ;  for  the  Second  Empire,  Delord,  Histoire  du 
Second  Empire  ;  La  Gorce,  Histoire  du  Second  Empire  ;  Jerrold,  Life  of  Napoleon 
III.:  Harcourt,  Les  quatre  ministeres  de  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  ;  Maugny,  Souven- 


The  Romantic  Movemertt  in  Literature.  251 

irsof  the  Second  Empire  ;  Falloux,  M^iuoires  d'un  royaliste  ;  Persigny,  M^moircs; 
Haussntann,  M^moires ;  Ollivier,  L' Empire  liberal  ;  Senior,  ConversHtioiis,  2 
series  ;  Castellane,  Journal,  and  Thiers,  Discours  parlemeutaircs  ;  for  Germany, 
see  Berger^  Felix,  Furst  zu  Schwarzenberg  ;  Bunsen,  Memoirs  ;  Beust^  Memoirs  ; 
Lowe,  Life  of  Prince  Bismarck  ;  Bismarck,  Gedenkschriften  uud  Erinnerungen, 
translated  by  Butler,  Gesammelte  Werke,  and  Politische  Reden  ;  Hahn,  Furst 
Bismarck ;  Kohl,  Fiirst  Bismarck ;  Poschinger,  Furst  Bismarck,  and  Simon, 
Histoire  du  Prince  de  Bismarck  ;  for  English  foreign  policy,  Martin,  Life  of  the 
Prince  Consort ;  Dalling  and  Ashley,  Life  of  Lord  Palmerston  ;  IVal'pole,  Life  of 
Lord  John  Russell,  and  Malmesbury,  Memoirs  of  an  ex- Minister ;  for  Belgium, 
Juste,  Leopold  L  et  Leopold  II.,  rois  des  Beiges,  leur  vie  etleur  regne;  Thonissen, 
La  Belgique  sous  le  regne  de  Leopold  I.,  and  Hymans,  Histoire  parlementaire  de 
Belgique  de  1830  a  1880;  for  Holland,  Bosch-Kemper,  Geschiedenis  van  Neder- 
land  na  1830 ;  and  for  Romania,  Xenopol^  Histoire  des  Roumains,  and  Bibesco^ 
R^gne  de  Bibesco  (1829-59;. 


LECTURE    78. 


LITERATURE  AND  PHILOSOPHY  FROM   1789  To  1848. 

Effect  of  the  French  Revolution  and  of  Napoleon's  conquests  on 
European  literature  ;  political  unrest  accompanied  by  a  great  literary- 
outburst  ;  this  not  so  noticeable  in  France,  where  politics  absorbed  the 
nation,  as  in  England  and  Germany;  the  spirit  of  nationality  aroused 
by  Napoleon  began  to  show  its  effect  before  Waterloo. 

The  period  between  18 15  and  1848  was  marked  by  the  romantic 
movement  in  literature,  which  developed  independently  all  over  Europe  : 
causes  of  the  romantic  movement ;  reaction  against  classicism  ;  its  de- 
velopment affected,  in  some  writers,  by  revival  of  Christian  religious 
sentiment,  as  in  Chateaubriand  ;  in  others, by  a  new  sympathy  with  the 
Middle  Ages,  as  in  Scott  and  Hugo  ;  in  others,  by  love  of  nature  and 
an  attempt  to  interpret  her,  as  in  Wordsworth  ;  in  others,  by  a  mystic 
sentimentalism,  as  in  Jean  Paul  Richter ;  and  in  others,  by  a  pessimistic 
self- consciousness,  as  in  Byron,  Lamartine  and  Pushkin. 

The  feeling  for  nationality  showed  itself  in  literature,  after  an  out- 
burst of  patriotic  poetry,  in  the  revival  of  the  study  of  history  ;  over- 


252  Literature  from  lySg  to  184.8. 

throw  of  national  legends  and  beginning  of  scientific  history  ;  influence 
of  Niebuhr  ;  intere^  taken  in  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  ;  com- 
mencement of  the  systematic  publication  of  documents  ;  the  English 
Record  Commission  (1802),  the  Monumenta  Germanice  Hlstorica  (1826), 
the  Documents  inedits  sur  Vhistoire  de  France  (1835);  the  foundation  of 
the  £^cole  des  Chartes  (1821). 

French  literature  of  the  Revolution  :  its  political  character  ;  the  great 
orators  and  their  written  speeches;  Mirabeau  (i 749-1 791);  Vergniaud 
(1759-1793);  Robespierre  (1758-1794);  poUtical  journalism  ;  Camille 
Desmoulins  (1762-1794);  the  Revolutionary  drama  ;  CoUot  d'Herbois 
(1750-1796);  Marie  Joseph  Chenier  (1764-1811);  poetry;  Andre  Che- 
nier  (1763-1794);  criticism  ;  La  Harpe  (i 739-1 803). 

French  literature  of  the  Empire  ;  its  classicism  and  sterility  ;  Ducis 
(1733-1816);  Fontanes  (1757-1821);  Napoleon's  attitude  towards  liter- 
ature ;  his  admiration  of  the  so-called  poems  of  Ossian  ;  the  most  popu- 
lar French  writer  of  the  period,  Madame  de  Stael  (1766-1817);  publi- 
cation of  Chateaubriand's  Le  Genie  du  Christianisme  (1802)  and  oi  Les 
Martyrs  (1809). 

The  romantic  movement  in  France;  Chateaubriand  (i 767-1 848); 
Lamartine  (i  792-1 869);  Alfred  de  Vigny  (i  799-1 863);  Victor  Hugo 
(1802-1885);  Alfred  de  Musset  (1810-1857);  Theophile  Gautier  (1811- 
1872). 

French  literature  in  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  generally  influenced 
by  the  romantic  movement;  history;  Sismondi  (1773-1842);  Guizot 
(1787-1874);  Mignet  (1796-1884);  Thierry  (i 797-1 873);  Thiers  (1797- 
1877);  Michelet  (1798-1874);  drama;  Eugene  Scribe  (1791-1861);  Casi- 
mir  Delavigne  (1793-1843);  poetry;  Beranger  (1780-1857);  fiction; 
Balzac  (1799- 1850);  Alexandre  Dumas,  the  elder  (i 803-1 870);  Georges 
Sand  (1804- 1 876). 

English  literature  ;  romanticism  in  England  :  the  two  groups  of  poets  ; 
Byron  (i  788-1 824);  his  influence  in  Europe  ;  Shelley  (i 792-1 822);  Keats 
(1795-1821)  :  the  Lake  poets;  Wordsworth  (1770-1850)  ;  Coleridge 
(1772-1834)  ;  Southey  (1774-1843):  the  Victorian  poets;  Browning 
(1802-1889);  Tennyson  (1809-1892);  the  influence  of  Scott  (i 771-1832) 
as  poet  and  novelist :  English  prose  writers  ;  DeQuincey  (1785-1859); 
Carlyle  (1795-1881)  ;    Macaulay   ( 1 800-1 859)  :    history;  Grote  (1794- 


Literature  from  lySg  to  184.8.  253 

1871)  ;  Thomas  Arnold  (1795-1842)  :  fiction  ;  Thackeray  (1811-1863) ; 
Dickens  (181 2-1 870)  :  criticism  ;  Hazlitt  (i 778-1 830)  :  the  representa- 
tives of  the  ideas  of  1848  in  English  literature  ;  Maurice  (i  805-1872)  ; 
Charles  Kingsley  (1819-1875). 

German  literature  :  its  greatest  period,  that  of  the  French  Revolution 
and  Napoleon  ;  the  supremacy  of  Goethe  (i  749-1832)  ;  his  influence  ; 
the  ejGfect  of  the  French  Revolution  on  German  literature ;  Herder  (1744- 
1803);  Fichte0762-i8i4):  beginning  of  a  feeling  for  German  national- 
ity ;  Schiller  (1759- 1805)  ;  influence  of  his  historical  and  dramatic 
works  :  enthusiasm  for  German  nationality  aroused  by  the  Napoleonic 
conquest;  Arndt  (1769- 1860)  ;  Korner  (1791-1813):  history;  Niebuhr 
(1776- 1 831)  ;  Ranke  (1795- 1886)  ;  Droysen  (1808 -1884)  :  influence  of 
the  universities  on  German  literature  :  romanticism  in  Germany;  its 
mysticism;  Jean  Paul  Richter  (1763-1825);  Tieck  (1773-1853);  De  la 
MotteFouque(i777-i843):  criticism;  Schlegel  (1767- 1845):  theSwab- 
ian  poets  ;  Uhland  (1787- 1862):  the  isolated  greatness  of  Heine  (1810- 
1856),  as  poet  and  prose  writer. 

Italian  literature  :  influence  of  romanticism  ;  Ugo  Foscolo  (1777- 
1827);  Leopardi  (1798-1837);  Silvio  Pellico  (1789- 1854):  fiction;  Man- 
zoni  (1784-1873)  :  history;  Botta  ( 1 766-1 837 )  ;  CoUetta  (1775-1833) ; 
Cantu  (1805- 1 895);  Amari  (1806- 1889):  the  national  movement  in  Italy 
and  its  effect  on  Italian  literature  :  the  political  writings  of  Balbo 
(1789-1853);  Gioberti  (1801-1851);  and  Mazzini  (1808-1872). 

Spanish  literature :  special  attention  paid  to  the  study  of  history ; 
the  leading  historians;  Masdeu  (1740-1817)  ;  Conde  ( 1 760-1 82 1)  ; 
Navarette  (1765- 1844)  ;  Toreno  (i  786-1 843). 

Portuguese  literature  ;  its  nationalist  character  and  effect  in  destroy- 
ing the  Iberianist  idea:  poetry;  Almeida- Garrett  (i 799-1 854);  Castilho 
(1800- 1 875)  :  revival  of  the  study  of  history;  its  leader,  Herculano 
(1810-1877). 

Scandinavian  literature  :  its  tendency  to  bring  together  Sweden  and 
Denmark  :  Swedish  poetry  ;  Tegner  (i  782-1 846)  :  history  ;  Geijer 
(1783-1847);  Fryxell  (1795-1881)  :  Danish  poetry;  Ohlenschlager 
(1779-1850)  :  prose;  Hans  Christian  Andersen  (1805-1875). 

Russian  literature :  its  first  national  development ;  the  historian. 
Karamsin   '  1765-1826)  ;  the  fabulist,  Krilov  (1768-1844)  :  influence  of 


254  Philosophy  from  lySg  to  18^8. 

romanticism  in  Russia:  Pushkin  (1799- 1837):  commencement  of  mod- 
ern Russian  literature:  Gogol   (1810-1851);  Lermontov  (1811-1841). 

Intense  nationalism  the  characteristic  of  the  literature  of  oppressed  peo- 
ples ;  Poland:  poetry,  Michiewicz  (1798-1855);  history,  Chodzko  (1800- 
1871)  ;  Bohemia:  history,  Palacky  (1798-1876)  ;  Hungary:  poetry, 
Petofi  (1823-1849). 

The  chief  development  of  philosophy  during  this  period  was  in  Ger- 
many :  Fichte  (1762-18 14) ;  Schleiermacher(i 768-1 834)  ;  Hegel  (1770- 
1831);  Schelling  (1775-1854)  ;  Herbart  (1776-1841);  Schopenhauer 
(1788-1860). 

The  attempt  made  to  interpret  German  philosophy  to  France  :  Cousin 
(1792-1867);  the  positivist  philosophy  :  Comte  (1798-1857);  the  reaction 
to  Christianity  :  Lamennais  (1782- 1854);  Lacordaire  (1802-1861);  Mon- 
talembert  (1810-1870). 

Political  philosophy  in  France  :  the  ideas  of  the  French  philosophers 
of  the  1 8th  century  put  into  action  during  the  French  Revolution  ; 
reaction  against  them  under  Napoleon  ;  growth  of  the  socialist  philoso- 
phy :  Saint-Simon  (1760-1825)  ;  Fourier  (1772-1837)  ;  Proudhon 
(1809-1865). 

The  Utilitarian  philosophy  in  England:  Bentham  (1748-1832);  James 
Mill  ( 1 773-1 836);  John  Stuart  Mill  (i 806-1 873)  ;  the  application  of  phil- 
osophy to  j  urisprudence  :  Austin  (1790-1867);  political  philosophy: 
Sir  G.  C.  Lewis  (1806- 1863);  the  Scottish  school  of  philosophy:  Du- 
gald   Stewart  (1753-1828)  ;  Hamilton  (1788-1856). 

Growth  in  political  importance  of  political  economy  ;  its  chief  ex- 
ponents in  England  after  the  death  of  Adam  Smith  :  Malthus  (1764- 
1834)  ;  Ricardo  (1772-1823) ;  John  Stuart  Mill  (1806-1873) ;  in  France  : 
J.  B-  Say  (1767-1832)  ;  in  Germany  :  List  (1789-1846). 


LECTURE    79. 


ART  AND   SCIENCE  FROM    1789  TO   1848. 

Art  at  the  commencement  of  this  period  was  dominated  by  classical 
ideals  ;  the  influence  of  the  French  Revolution    on  art  enforced  this 


Art  and  Music  frofft  lySg  to  184.8.  255 

spirit,  and  during  the  Napoleonic  era  classicism  became  conven- 
tional ;  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  the  romantic  movement  greatly 
influenced  art,  and  produced  a  reaction  against  both  classicism  and  con- 
ventionality. 

The  French  painters:  the  classical  school:  David  (1748-1825)  ;  his 
career  during  the  Revolution  and  his  influence  on  French  art ;  his 
greatness  as  a  draughtsman  ;  his  career  under  the  Empire  ;  his  pupils  : 
Gros  (1771-1S35)  ;  reaction  to  romanticism  and  realism:  Ingres 
(1781-1867)  ;  Horace  Vernet  (1789-1863) ;  Gericault  (1790-1824) ;  Dela- 
croix (1798-1863) ;  Flandrin  (1809-1864). 

The  English  painters  :  Constable  (1766- 1837)  ^^^  ^is  influence  on 
landscape  painting  ;  Turner  (i  775-1 851)  ;  portrait  painhng  :  Lawrence 
(1769-1830)  ;  genre  painting  :  Wilkie  (1785-1841). 

The  German  painters  :  the  mysticism  of  the  first  romantic  painters ; 
Overbeck  (1789-1869)  ;  the  idealists  :  Cornelius  (1787-1867)  ;  patriotic 
idealism  and  mysticism  :  Kaulbach  (i  805-1 874)  ;  importance  of  Munich 
as  the  art  centre  of  Germany  during  this  period. 

The  Spanish  painters  :  their  one  great  master,  Goya  (i 745-1 828). 

Sculpture  during  this  period :  the  leading  sculptors  :  Canova 
(1757-1822)  ;  Flaxman  (1755-1826) ;  Thorwaldsen  (1770-1844)  ;  Rauch 
(1777-1857);  David  d' Angers  (1793-1856). 

Improvement  in  the  arts  of  reproduction  :  line  engraving  :  Raphael 
Morghen  (i 758-1 833)  ;  etching  ;  invention  of  lithography  (1796)  :  Sene- 
felder  (i 771-1834). 

Music  developed  more  than  painting  or  sculpture  during  this  period  : 
the  veritable  great  masters  in  music  exerted  their  influence,  aided  by 
great  improvements  in  the  means  for  rendering  their  compositions. 

Music  studied  with  greatest  success  in  Germany  ;  its  chief  centre, 
Vienna  :  the  supreme  greatness  of  Beethoven  (1770- 1827)  ;  Schubert 
(1797-1828). 

The  school  of  classical  correctness  in  music  :  Cherubini  (1760-1842)  ; 
Spohr  (1784- 1 859). 

Development  of  the  opera  :  the  opera  in  Germany  :  Weber  (1786- 1826); 
the  Italian  opera  :  Rossini  (1792-1868) ;  Donizetti  (1798-1848)  ;  Bellini 
(1802-1835)  ;  the  opera  in  France:  Harold  (1791-1833)  ;  Meyerbeer 
(1794-1864)  ;  comic  opera:  Boieldieu  (i  775-1 834)  ;  Auber  (i  782-1 871). 


256  Science  from  lySg  to  184.8. 

Romanticism  in  music  :  Berlioz  (1803-1869)  ;  Chopin  (1810-1849). 

Growth  of  a  higher  idealism  in  music,  especially  in  Germany  :  Men- 
delssohn (1809-1848)  ;  Schumann  (1810-1856)  ;  attempt  of  Wagner 
(18 10-1883)  to  widen  the  sphere  and  heighten  the  realism  of  music  ; 
effect  of  his  writings  ;  production  of  Taiinhauser  (1845). 

Application  of  science  to  material  needs  :  introduction  of  steam  trans- 
port ;  railroads;  Boulton  (1728-1809);  Watt  (1736-1819);  Fulton  (1765- 
1815);  Stephenson  (1781-1848). 

The  application  of  chemistry  :  Chaptal  (1756-1832)  ;  J.  B.  Dumas 
(1800-1884) ;  Liebig  (1803-1871). 

The  application  of  electricity:  the  electric  telegraph  :  Gauss  (1777- 
1855)  ;  Morse  (1791-1874);  Wheatstone  (1802-1875). 

The  discovery  of  photography  :  Niepce  (1765-1833);  Daguerre  (1789- 

1851). 

The  development  of  the  natural  sciences  :  attempts  at  a  general  har- 
mony of  natural  phenomena  :  Lamarck  (i  744-1 829);  Alexander  von 
Humboldt  (1769-1859);  Darwin  (1809-1882). 

The  great  biologists  :  Cuvier(i 769-1 832);  K.  H.  Weber  (1795-1878); 
Miiller  (1801-1858). 

The  great  physiologists  :  Bichat  (i 771-1802),  the  first  writer  on 
physiology  ;  Broussais  (1772-1838);  Bell  (1774-1842). 

The  great  zoologists:  Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire  ( 1 772-1 844)  ;  Agassiz 
(1807-1873). 

The  great  botanists  :  Jussieu  (1747-1836);  De  Candolle  (1778-1841); 
Brongniart  (i  801-1876). 

The  great  geologists  :  William  Smith  (1769-1839);  Dufrenoy  (1792- 
1857);  I^yell  (1797-1875);  filie  de  Beaumont  (1798-1874). 

The  great  mathematicians:  the  French  school:  Lagrange  (1736- 
1813);  Monge  (1746-1818);  Laplace  (1749-1827);  Legendre  (1752-1833); 
Carnot  (1753-1823);  Fourier  (1768-1830);  Cauchy  (1789-1857);  de- 
velopment of  mathematics  in  other  European  countries  :  Gauss  (1777- 
1855)  ;  Green  (i  793-1 841)  ;  Lobachevski  (i  793-1 850)  ;  Abel  (1802- 
1829)  ;  Sturm  (1803-1855)  ;  Sir  W.  R.  Hamilton  (1805-1865) ;  De 
Morgan  (i  806-1 871). 

The  great  astronomers  :  Herschel  (1738-1822)  ;  Piazzi  (1746-1826)  ; 
Bessel  (i 784-1 846)  ;  Arago  (i  786-1 853)  ;  Olbers  (i 788-1 840)  ;  Hansen 
(1795-1874)  ;  Airy  (1801-1892)  ;  Leverrier  (1811-1877). 


The  Eastern  Question ^  18^1-34..  257 

The  great  physicists  :  interest  taken  in  electricity  :  Rumford  (1753- 
1814)  ;  Young  (1773-1829)  ;  Biot  (1774-1862)  ;  Ampere  (1775-1836); 
Oersted  (1777-1857)  ;  Davy  (1778-1829)  ;  Fresnel  (1788-1827)  :  Ohm 
(1788- 1 854)  ;  Faraday  (i 791-1867);  mathematical  physics  :  Lain6 
(1795-1870). 

The  great  chemists  :  Cabanis  (i  757-1 808);  Gay-Lussac  (i  778-1 850); 
Berzelius  (1779-1848)  ;  Chevreul  (1786-1889);  Liebig  (1803-1871). 

The  extension  of  scientific  knowledge  brought  about  a  greater  degree 
of  specialization  in  the  natural,  mathematical  and  experimental  sciences. 


LECTURE   80. 


THE  EASTERN  QUESTION:    THE  CRIMEAN  WAR. 

The  Eastern  Question  from  the  settlement  of  the  crisis  brought  on  by 
the  war  between  the  Turks  and  Mehemet  AH  ( 1839- 1 841). 

Protest  of  England  and  France  against  the  pressure  placed  upon  the 
Turks  by  Russia  and  Austria  to  surrender  Polish  and  Hungarian  fugi- 
tives :  an  English  fleet  entered  the  Dardanelles  (1849)  ;  influence  at 
Constantinople  of  Sir  Stratford  Canning  (b.  1788,  d.  1880),  created  Vis- 
count Stratford  de  Redclifle  (1852),  the  English  ambassador  (1841-1858). 

Reasons  for  England's  interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  independence 
of  Turkey  ;  proposal  of  the  Tsar  Nicholas  to  divide  the  territories  of 
the  "Sick  Man"  with  England. 

The  attitude  of  the  Tsar  Nicholas  towards  the  Turks  :  consistency  of 
his  policy  since  the  Treaties  of  Adrianople  (1829)  and  Unkiar  Skelessi 
(1833);  evacuation  of  the  Danubian  principalities  by  the  Russian  troops 
(1851 )  after  the  reorganization,  which  followed  the  Convention  of  Balta- 
Liman  ;  accession  of  Daniel,  as  Prince  of  Montenegro  (1851). 

The  Tsar  Nicholas  believed  the  time  propitious  for  the  final  over- 
throw of  the  Turks  ;  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria  was  bound  to  him  by 
gratitude  for  assistance  in  1849,  and  almost  dependent  on  him  ;  Fred- 
erick William  IV.  of  Prussia,  his  brother-in-law,  was  desirous  of  ob- 
taining his  help  to  establish  his  control  over  Germany  ;  England  could 


258  The  Crimean    War. 

nat  fight  without  allies  and  might  be  induced  to  share  the  spoil ;  while 
Napoleon  III.  was  distrusted  by  the  European  powers,  and  maintenance 
of  his  position  in  France  was  doubtful  ;  the  conversations  of  Nicholas 
with  the  English  ambassador  at  Saint  Petersburg,  Sir  George  Hamilton 
Seymour  (Jan.,   1853). 

The  condition  of  Turkey  ;  reforms  attempted  by  the  Sultan  Abdul 
Med j  id  under  the  direction  of  Rashid  Pasha  and  the  encouragement 
of  Stratford  Canning. 

Disputed  questions  likely  to  lead  to  war  :  the  difficulty  about  Mon- 
tenegro ;  the  quarrel  with  France  about  the  Holy  Places  in  Palestine. 

Mission  of  Menshikov  (b.  1787,  d.  1869)  to  Constantinople  (28  Feb.- 
21  May  1853);  demand  of  Nicholas  to  be  recognized  as  official  protector 
of  the  Greek  Christians  in  the  Turkish  dominions  ;  the  Russian  ulti- 
matum of  5  May,  and  its  modified  form  of  21  May  ;  Nicholas'  Note  to 
the  Powers  (11  June);  English  and  French  fleets  under  Admirals  James 
Dundas  and  Hamelin  anchored  in  Besika  Bay  (14  June);  a  Russian 
army  under  Michael  Gorchakov  crossed  the  Pruth  (2  July)  and  occu- 
pied the  Danubian  principalities;  Gregory  Ghica,  Hospodar  of  Moldavia, 
and  Stirbeiu,  Hospodar  of  Wallachia,  withdrew  to  Vienna;  the  Vienna 
Note  (28  July);  the  English  and  French  fleets  entered  the  Dardanelles 
(22  Oct). 

The  Turks  at  war  with  Russia  (23  Oct.,  1853):  destruction  of  the 
Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope  (30  Nov.);  the  English  and  French  fleets  en- 
tered the  Black  Sea  (4  Jan.,  1854). 

England  and  France  signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Turkey  (12  Mar. 
1854)  and  declared  war  against  Russia  (27  Mar.);  alliance  signed  be- 
tween England  and  France  (10  Apr.). 

The  attitude  and  policy  of  Austria  and  Prussia  :  they  demand,  with 
France  and  England,  the  evacuation  of  the  Danubian  principalities ; 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  signed  between  Prussia  and  Austria  (20 
Apr.,  1854). 

Gallant  defence  of  Silistria  by  the  Turks  (19  May-23  June,  1854); 
English  and  French  armies  under  Raglan  and  Saint- Arnaud  landed  at 
Varna  (May-June);  the  Danubian  principalities  evacuated  by  the  Rus- 
sians (2  Aug.);  the  allied  armies  landed  in  the  Crimea  (14-16  Sept.). 

Austria  occupied  the  Danubian  principalities  and    restored  the  au- 


The  Crimean    War.  259 

thority  of  the  Hospodars  (Aug. -Sept.),  under  an  agreement  signed  with 
the  Sultan  (12  June);  the  difficulty  felt  by  the  Allies  in  effectively  at- 
tacking Russia  while  Austria  refused  to  declare  war ;  indignation  of 
the  Tsar  Nicholas  and  of  the  Allies  at  the  conduct  of  Austria  ;  Francis 
Joseph  kept  in  check  by  the  attitude  of  Prussia  and  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation ;  the  Four  Points  demanded  by  the  Western  Powers,  and 
accepted  by  Austria  (8  Aug.),  but  rejected  by  Russia:  (i)  abandonment 
of  Russia's  protectorate  over  the  Danubian  principalities  and  Servia ; 
(2)  freedom  of  navigation  of  the  Danube;  (3)  revision  of  the  Treaty  of 
13  July,  1 841,  so  far  as  it  related  to  the  neutrality  of  the  Dardanelles  ; 
(4)  abandonment  of  Russia's  claim  to  the  protectorate  over  the  Chris- 
tians in  Turkey. 

The  campaign  in  the  Crimea:  the  Russians  under  Menshikov  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  the  Alma  (20  Sept.);  death  of  Saint- Arnaud,  who  was 
succeeded  by  Canrobert  (29  Sept.);  battles  of  Balaklava  (25  Oct.),  and 
Inkerman  (5  Nov.);  siege  of  Sevastopol ;  defence  of  the  city  by  Tod- 
leben  (b.  1818,  d.  1884);  sufferings  of  the  allied  armies  during  the  siege. 

The  English  and  French  fleets  in  the  Baltic  under  Sir  Charles  Napier 
and  Parseval-Deschenes  :  capture  of  Bomarsund  (16  Aug.). 

Continued  vacillation  of  Austria. 

Death  of  the  Tsar  Nicholas  (2  Mar.,  1855);  accession  of  Alexander 
II.  (b.  1818). 

Campaign  of  1855  before  Sevastopol  :  Menshikov  succeeded  by 
Michael  Gorchakov  in  command  of  the  Russian  army  (4  March); 
Canrobert  succeeded  by  Pelissier  in  command  of  the  French  army  (16 
May);  operations  of  the  allied  fleets,  now  commanded  by  Lyons  and 
Bruat  ;  attack  on  the  Redan  and  capture  of  the  Mamelon  (7  June)  and 
failure  to  capture  the  Malakov  (18  June);  death  of  Raglan,  who  was 
succeeded  by  Simpson  (28  June);  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia, 
joined  the  Allies  (26  Jan. ),  and  sent  an  army  under  LaMarmora  (b.  1804, 
d.  1878)  to  the  Crimea  (May);  battle  of  the  Chernaia  (16  Aug.);  cap- 
ture of  the  Malakov  (8  Sept.);  surrender  of  Sevastopol  (9  Sept.);  Cod- 
rington  in  command  of  the  English  army  (11  Nov.). 

Campaign  of  1855  in  the  Baltic  :  the  English  and  French  fleets  under 
Richard  Dundas  and  Penaud  bombard  Sveaborg  and  Helsingfors  (7-1 1 
Aug.). 


26o  The  Treaty  of  Paris,  1S56. 

Campaign  of  1855  in  Armenia  :  gallant  defence  of  Kars  under  Fen- 
wick  Williams  ;   its  surrender  (28  Nov.). 

Negotiations  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  II.  for  peace  ;  exhaustion  of 
Russia. 

Congress  of  Paris  for  the  settlement  of  terms  of  peace  meeting  of 
the  Congress  (25  Feb.,  1856)  ;  plenipotentiaries  present  were  :  for 
France,  Walewski  and  Bourqueney  ;  for  England,  Clarendon  and  Cow- 
ley ;  for  Russia,  Orlov  and  Brunnow  ;  for  Austria,  Buol  and  Hiibner  ; 
for  Sardinia,  Cavour  and  Villamarina ;  and  for  Turkey,  Ali  Pasha  and 
Djemil  Effendi;  the  Prussian  representatives,  Manteuffel  and  Hatzfeldt, 
were  not  admitted  till  18  March. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (30  March)  the  independence  and  territorial 
integrity  of  Turkey  was  recognized,  the  Black  Sea  neutralized,  and  the 
Danube  declared  a  free  river  ;  the  Danubian  principalities  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  were  given  complete  local  self-government  under  their 
own  princes,  with  national  armies  and  representative  institutions, 
guaranteed  by  the  powers,  but  under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey  ;  Servia 
received  the  same  advantages,  but  Turkish  garrisons  were  maintained 
in  Belgrade  and  in  three  other  cities. 

By  the  Declaration  of  Paris  (16  April)  privateering  was  forbidden  ; 
neutral  goods,  when  carried  in  the  ships  of  belligerents,  and  enemies' 
goods  on  neutral  ships,  except  contraband  of  war,  were  protected,  and 
blockades  recognized  only  when  effective. 

Before  the  Congress  broke  up  Cavour  (b.  1809,  d.  1861)  brought  for- 
ward the  condition  of  Italy,  and  the  proceedings  of  Ferdinand  II., 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  against  his  subjects  were  condemned. 

Evacuation  of  the  Crimea  by  the  French  and  English  armies  (July, 

1856). 

The  most  conspicuous  results  of  the  Congress  of  Paris  were  the 
isolation  of  Austria  and  the  favorable  attitude  of  the  other  Great 
Powers  toward  Sardinia. 

Authorities :  The  best  small  book  in  English  is  Hamley,  The  War  in  the 
Crimea ;  see  also  Engelhardt,  La  Turquie  et  le  tanzimat ;  histoire  des  rdformes 
depuis  1826  ;  Forgade,  Histoire  des  causes  de  la  guerre  d'Orient ;  Lane-Poole,  Life 
of  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe  ;  Vitzthum  von  Eckstddt,  St.  Petersburg  and  London 
in  the  years  1852-64  ;  Thouvenel,  Nicolas  I.  et  Napoleon  III.  (1852-54) ;  KinglakCy 


Italy  from  184.8  to  1858,  26X 

The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea,  its  Origin  and  Account  of  its  Progress  to  the  Death  of 
Lord  Raglan  ;  Hamley,  The  Story  of  the  Campaign  of  Sebastopoi ;  Russell,  The 
British  Expedition  to  the  Crimea  ;  Sandwith,  Narrative  of  the  Siege  of  Kars  ; 
Rousset,  Histoire  de  la  guerre  de  Crim^e  ;  Niel,  Le  siege  de  Sebastopoi ;  Bazan- 
courty  Iv'Exp^dition  de  Crim^e ;  la  marine  fran^aise  dans  la  mer  Noire  et  la  Bal- 
tique,  and  L'Expddition  de  Crimee  jusqu'a  la  prise  de  Sdbastopol ;  Todleben,  La  de- 
fense de  Sebastopoi ;  Brialmont,  Le  general  Todleben,  sa  vie  et  ses  travaux  ; 
Rothan,  La  Prusse  et  son  Roi  pendant  la  guerre  de  Crimee ;  RUstow^  Der  Krieg 
gegen  Russland,  and  Der  Angriff  auf  die  Krim  undder  Kampf  um  Sebastopoi,  and 
Geffcke7iy  Zur  Geschichte  dts  Orientalischen  Krieges. 


LECTURE   81. 


THE  UNION  OF  ITALY. 

Condition  of  Italy  after  the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  ;  cruel 
government  of  Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  reactionary 
government  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  II.  of  Tuscany, 
Duke  Francis  V.  of  Modena,  and  Duke  Charles  III.  of  Parma  ;  assassi- 
nation of  Charles  III.  of  Parma  (26  Mar.,  1854),  and  accession  of  Rob- 
ert I. ;  arbitrary  military  government  of  the  Austrians  in  Lombardy  and 
Venetia. 

The  only  constitutional,  parliamentary  and  moderate  government  in 
Italy  was  that  of  the  King  of  Sardinia  ;  character  of  Victor  Emmanuel 
II.  (b.  1820,  d.  1878);  ministry  ofD'Azeglio  (7  May,  1849-22  Oct.,  1852); 
Cavour,  chief  minister  of  Sardinia  (4  Nov.,  1852-13  July,  1859)  ;  his 
sagacious  policy;  Victor  Emmanuel  and  Cavour  hoped  to  accomplish  the 
union  of  Italy  under  the  constitutional  government  of  the  House  of 
Savoy. 

Progress  of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Italy:  it  was  mainly  re- 
publican and  democratic,  and  looked  to  the  formation  of  an  Italian 
Republic  ;  opposite  points  of  view  of  Cavour  and  Mazzini ;  the  former 
wished  to  accomplish  the  union  of  Italy  by  policy,  with  the  countenance 
and  assistance  of  Europe,  the  latter  by  means  of  popular  insurrection  ; 
Mazzini's  attempt  to  raise  an  insurrection  in  Genoa  (June,  1857). 


262  The  Policy  of  Cavour. 

The  Austrians  continued  to  occupy  Parma,  Modena  and  the  Lega- 
tions, while  the  French  had  occupied  Rome  since  1849. 

Political  advantage  obtained  by  Cavour  in  joining  the  Anglo-French 
alliance  against  Russia  in  1855,  and  in  sending  an  army  to  the  Crimea  ; 
he  thus  obtained  the  right  to  be  present  at  the  Congress  of  Paris,  and 
to  lay  the  grievances  of  Italy  before  the  Great  Powers. 

Interest  taken  in  England  and  in  France  in  the  cause  of  Italian 
unity  ;  indignation  at  the  cruelties  of  King  Bomba  ;  conspiracies  formed, 
and  money  obtained  ;  the  work  of  the  secret  societies  and  spread  of 
democratic  and  unitary  principles. 

Napoleon  III.  considered  the  possibility  of  assisting  the  Italian  cause; 
his  sympathy  with  the  spirit  of  nationality  ;  the  idea  of  creating  a  con- 
federation of  the  Italian  Princes  under  the  leadership  of  the  Pope  and 
the  King  of  Sardinia  ;  attempt  of  Orsini  on  the  life  of  Napoleon  III. 
(14  Jan.,  1858). 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  Europe  in  1858  favored  the  policy  of  Na- 
poleon III.  and  Cavour  ;  in  Prussia  Prince  William  had  been  declared 
regent  owing  to  the  insanity  of  Frederick  William  IV.  (7  Oct.,  1858); 
the  new  regent  hated  Austria  and  w^as  ready  to  be  on  friendly  terms 
with  France  ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  II.  also  friendly  wath  France. 

England,  though  less  friendly  with  France  than  during  the  Crimean 
War,  was  too  much  occupied  with  the  suppression  of  the  Sepoy  Mutiny 
in  India  to  wish  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Europe,  and  English 
public  opinion  was  all  in  favor  of  Italian  unity  and  liberty;  Austria, 
the  power  most  opposed  to  Italian  reform  and  unity,  was  therefore 
isolated. 

Success  of  the  French  policy  in  the  two  Danubian  provinces:  the  idea 
of  union  ;  revival  of  the  idea  of  Romanian  nationality  ;  union  not  for- 
bidden by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  though  not  intended  by  the  Powers  ; 
provisional  government  (1856- 1858)  ;  Alexander  John  Couza  elected 
Prince  of  Moldavia  (17  Jan..  1859),  and  of  Wallachia  (5  Feb.)  ;  Milosch 
Obrenovitch  replaced  Alexander  Karageorgevitch  as  Prince  of  Servia 
(12  Jan.,  1859);  on  his  death  (26  Sept.,  i860)  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Michael. 

Napoleon  III.  and  Cavour  agreed  at  Plombieres  (20  July,  1858)  that 
Sardinia  should  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France  in  return  for  assistance 
against  Austria  in  Italy. 


The   War  of  i8 5g,  263 

The  relations  between  Sardinia  and  Austria :  Austria  declared  war 
(26  Apr.,  1859);  Napoleon  III.  declared  his  intention  of  aiding  Victor 
Emmanuel. 

The  campaign  of  1859  in  Italy  :  the  French  and  Sardinian  armies  de- 
feated the  Austrians  at^Montebello  ( 20  May)  and  at  Magenta  (±  Tune)! 
entrance  of  Napoleon  III.  and  Victor  Emmanuel  into  Milan  (8  June); 
Napoleon's  appeal  to  the  Italians  to  unite  for  the  freedom  of  their 
country. 

General  insurrection  in  Italy  :  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  driven  from 
Florence  (27  Apr.),  Duke  Robert  I.  from  Parma  (9  June),  and  Duke 
Francis  V.  from  Modena  (11  June)  ;  Francis  II.  succeeded  as  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  (22  May),  and  was  prevented  from  aiding  the  Austrians 
by  insurrections ;  the  Austrians  withdrew  from  the  Legations  (12-18 
June);  provisional  governments  formed  at  Florence  under  Ricasoli  (27 
Apr.),  at  Modena  (13  June)  and  at  Bologna  (12  June). 

The  French  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Solferino_(24  June)  ;  Napoleon 
III. ,  startled  at  the  spread  of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Italy,  and 
afraid  of  the  establishment  of  a  strongly  unified  monarchy,  instead  of 
an  Italian  federation,  made  an  armistice  with  Austria  (8  July). 

By  the  Treaty  of  Villafranca  (11  July)  Austria  made  peace  with 
France  and  ceded  Lombardy,  but  not  Venetia,  to  Napoleon  III.;  resig- 
nation of  Cavour  (13  July) ;  both  Austria  and  France  afraid  of  the 
Prince  Regent  of  Prussia,  who  had  mobilized  the  Prussian  army  ( 14 
June);  definitive  treaty  signed  at  Zurich  (10  Nov.). 

Progress  of  the  movement  in  Italy  for  amalgamation  with  the  King- 
dom of  Sardinia;  Tuscany,  the  Legations,  the  Romagna  and  the  Duchies 
of  Parma  and  Modena  voted  for  union  with  Sardinia  (Aug.,  Sept.)  ; 
they  elected  the  Prince  of  Carignano  as  regent  (6-9  Nov.)  ;  he  refused 
the  office  and  named  Boncompagni  as  regent  (14  Nov.);  Garibaldi 
resigned  the  command  of  their  army  (17  Nov.);  Cavour  recalled  to 
office  by  Victor  Emmanuel  ( 16  Jan.,  i860). 

V  Napoleon  III.  appealed  for  a  conference  of  the  Great  Powers  to  settle 
the  affairs  of  Italy  (30  Nov.,  1859)  ;  England  formally  opposed  ;  Pal- 
merston,  who  had  become  prime  minister  (12  June,  1859),  declared  for 
non-intervention  and  that  the  central  Italian  states  had  a  right  to  decide 
on  their  own  government,  and  he  demanded  that  the  French  should 
evacuate  Rome  (22  Jan.,  i860). 


264  The  Union  of  Italy, 

Victor  Emmanuel  accepted  the  union,  with  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia, 
of  Parma,  Modena  and  the  Romagna  (18  Mar.),  and  of  Tuscany  (22 
March). 

Napoleon  III.  ceded  lyombardy  to  Victor  Emmanuel  in  exchange  for 
Savoy  and  Nice  (24  March). 

Garibaldi  landed  in  Sicily  with  a  body  of  followers  (11  May,  i860)  ;  his 
movement  entirely  independent ;  he  disliked  Cavour,  and  was  an  ad- 
herent of  republicanism  rather  than  of  the  House  of  Savoy;  Garibaldi 
conquered  all  Sicily  by  the  end  of  July  ;  Francis  II.,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  re-issued  the  constitution  which  his  father  had  granted  in  1848 
and  afterwards  had  withdrawn  (2  July)  ;  Garibaldi  crossed  to  the  main- 
land (19  Aug.),  conquered  Calabria  and  occupied  Naples  (7  Sept.)  ; 
:  Francis  II.  escaped  to  Gaeta  (6  Sept.)  ;  Mazzini  joined  Garibaldi  (17 
\  Sept.),  and  projected  the  establishment  of  an  Italian  Republic. 

Action  of  Victor  Emmanuel  and  Cavour  at  this  juncture  :  they  rep- 
resented themselves  as  forced  by  circumstances  to  intervene  in  the  af- 
fairs of  southern  Italy  ;  encouraged  by  England  :  wrath  of  the  Pope, 
who  excommunicated  Victor  Emmanuel ;  Cialdini,  with  a  Sardinian 
army,  defeated  the  Papal  troops  at  Castelfidardo  (18  Sept.),  occupied 
Umbria  and  the  March,  avoided  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  and  entered 
Neapolitan  territory  (23  Sept.)  ;  capture  of  Ancona  (29  Sept.). 
I  The  Parliament  of  Turin,  consisting  of  deputies  from  all  northern 
I  and  central  Italy,  authorized  Victor  Emmanuel  to  unite  the  March, 
Naples  and  Sicily  with  the  Sardinian  dominions  (11-16  Oct.)  ;  Victor 
Emmanuel  proceeded  to  Naples  ;  patriotic  conduct  of  Garibaldi ;  Um- 
bria, the  March,  Naples  and  Sicily  voted  for  union  with  northern  and 
central  Italy  (21  Oct.). 

Surrender  of  Gaeta  (13  Feb.,  1861). 

Meeting  of  the  first  Italian  Parliament  at  Turin  (18  Feb.,  1861);  the 
King  of  Sardinia  declared  King  of  Italy  as  Victor  Emmanuel  1.(17  Mar.). 

Italy  thus  formed  into  a  united  kingdom  within  eighteen  months 
from  the  outbreak  of  war  with  Austria,  the  only  provinces  not  ruled 
by  the  House  of  Savoy  being  Venetia,  occupied  by  the  Austrians,  and 
Rome,  with  the  Patrimou}^  of  St.  Peter,  garrisoned  by  French  troops. 

Causes  of  this  startling  success  :  the  ability  of  Cavour;  organization 
of  Italy  as  a  limited  monarchy  under  the  House  of  Savoy. 

Death  of  Cavour  (6  June,  1861). 


The  Creation  of  Romania.  265 

Authorities :  The  best  small  book  in  English  is  Slillman,  The  Union  of 
Italy;  see  also  Martinengo  Cesaresco,  The  Liberation  of  Italy*  Tivaroni,  Storia 
critica  del  Risorgiinento  Italiano;  Reuchlin,  Geschichte  Italiens  ;  Mistrali^  Da  No- 
vara  a  Roma  ;  Crozals,  ly'Unitc  italienne  ;  Giacometti,  L'Unit^  italienne  ;  Cantti, 
Delia  Indipendenza  Italiana;  Idevil/e,  Journal  d'un  Diplomate  eu  Italie,  1859-1862  ; 
Bianc/ii,  Storia  documentata  della  diplomazia  Europea  in  Italia ;  Jiatiazzi,  Rat- 
tazzi  et  son  temps  ;  Zeller,  Pie  IX.  et  Victor  Emmanuel ;  Battalia^  Histoirc  de  la 
revolution  de  i860  en  Sicile  ;  Garibaldiy  Memoirs  ;  Mazzini,  Scritti,  editi  ed  in- 
editi;  Massari,  Vita  di  Vittorio  Emanuele  II.,  and  Vita  di  Cavour;  Godkin,  Life  of 
Victor  Emmanuel ;  MazadCy  Le  comte  de  Cavour  ;  Nigra,  Correspondence  of  Ca- 
vour with  Madame  de  Circourt,  translated  by  Butler  ;  Cavour,  II  conte  di  Cavour 
in  parlamento;  discorsi,  ed.  Artom  and  Blanc;  Lettere  edite  ed  inedite,  ed.  Chiala; 
and  Nouvelles  Lettres,  ed.  Bert;  Bianchi,  La  politique  du  Comte  Camille  de  Ca- 
vour de  1852  a  1861,  lettres  inedites  ;  Mario,  Garibaldi  e  i  suoi  Tempi ;  D'Aze- 
glio,  I  miei  ricordi ;  L'ltalie  de  1847  a  1865  ;  Correspondance.ed.  Rendu  ;  Scritti 
politici  e  letterari,  ed.  Tabarrini;  and  Scritti  postumi,  ed.  Ricd;  Della  Rocca,  Au- 
tobiography of  a  Veteran ;  Duquet,  Histoire  de  la  guerre  d'ltalie ;  Rustow,  Der 
italienische  Krieg,  1859,  and  Erinnerungen  aus  dem  italienischen  Feldzuge  von 
i860,  and  Bazancourt,  La  campagne  d'ltalie  de  1859. 


LECTURE    82. 


THE  OVERTHROW  OF  AUSTRIA. 

Position  of  the  Great  Powers  toward  each  other  after  the  formation 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

The  restless  policy  of  Napoleon  III. :  continuance  of  the  alliance  with 
England,  but  on  less  cordial  terms  ;  the  joint  expedition  to  China  ( i860); 
French  interference  in  Syria  (i860)  ;  the  French  expedition  to  Mexico 
(1862);  election  of  the  Archduke  Maximilian  as  Emperor  of  Mexico 
(10  July,  1863);  disastrous  result  of  French  interference  in  Mexico  (1866); 
Maximilian  shot  (19  June.  1867). 

Development  of  the  Eastern  Question  :  friendship  between  Napoleon 
III.  and  Alexander  II.;  union  of  the  provinces  of  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
chia  into  the  Principality  of  Romania  (23  Dec,  1861);  death  of  Sultan 
Abdul  Medjid  and  accession  of  Abdul  Aziz  (25  June,  1861);  overthrow 
of  Prince  Alexander  Couza  C23  Feb.,  1866);  election  of  Prince  Charles 
of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  as  Prince  of  Romania  (20  Apr.,   1866). 


266  TTie  Policy  of  Bismarck, 

Revolution  in  Greece  :  overthrow  of  King  Otho  (Oct.,  1862);  election 
of  Prince  George  of  Denmark  as  King  of  the  Hellenes  (30  Mar.,  1863); 
representative  institutions  established;  cession  by  England  of  the 
Ionian  Islands  to  Greece  (28  May,  1864). 

The  position  in  Italy:  the  ministries  of  Ricasoli  (12  June,  1861 — 2 
March,  1862);  Rattazzi (3  March,  1862— i  Dec,  i862),andFarini(9Dec., 
1862 — 23  Sept.,  1864);  longing  of  the  Italians  for  Rome  and  Venice  ; 
negotiations  with  France  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  garrison  from 
Rome  ;  Garibaldi's  attempt  on  Rome  defeated  at  Aspromonte  (29  Aug., 
1862);  ministry  of  La  Marmora  (23  Sept.,  1864 — 20  June,  1866);  his 
negotiations  with  Prussia. 

The  policy  of  Tsar  Alexander  II.:  emancipation  of  the  Russian 
serfs  (18  Mar.,  1861);  outbreak  of  insurrection  in  Russian  Poland 
(22  Jan.,  1863);  offer  of  Prussia  to  assist  Russia  in  suppressing  the  in- 
surrection (8  Feb.);  gratitude  of  Alexander ;  joint  representations  of 
England,  Austria  and  France  in  favor  of  the  Poles  (17  Apr.);  indigna- 
tion of  the  Tsar. 

The  internal  policy  of  Austria  :  Rechberg,  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
(17  May,  1859 — 27  Oct.,  1864);  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  promulgated 
a  unitary  constitution  (20  Oct.,  i860);  refusal  of  the  Hungarians  and 
Venetians  to  send  deputies  to  the  new  parliament. 

Growing  strength  of  Prussia:  accession  of  William  I.  (2  Jan.,  1861); 
his  character  and  previous  career ;  his  military  instincts  ;  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  Prussian  army  by  Von  Roon  (b.  1803,  d.  1879),  and  of  the 
general  staff  by  Von  Moltke  (b.  1800,  d.  1891);  King  William's  belief 
in  the  unity  of  Germany  and  in  the  mission  of  Prussia  to  dominate 
Germany. 

Position  of  parties  in  the  Prussian  Landtag :  Bismarck  appointed 
chief  minister  (23  Sept.,  1862);  he  was  unable  to  obtain  a  parliamentary 
majority,  but  raised  taxes  and  governed  without  it ;  character  of  Bis- 
marck's policy  ;  he  worked  for  the  isolation  of  Austria  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  her  influence  in  Germany  as  the  first  step  towards  German 
unity. 

The  weakness  of  the  Bundestag,  or  Federal  Diet ;  the  schemes  of  the 
middle  states,  headed  by  Saxony,  Hanover  and  Bavaria,  for  preventing 
the  predominance  of  either  Austria  or  Prussia. 


The  Schleswig'Holstein  Question,  267 

The  Schleswig-Holstein  question  :  its  position  at  the  death  of  Fred- 
erick Vil.  of  Denmark  (15  Nov.,  1863);  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg  put 
forward  his  claim  to  the  duchies  ;  at  the  request  of  the  Bundestag, 
Hanover  and  Saxony  occupied  Holstein  and  Lauenburg  (23  Dec,  1863), 
and  Prussia  and  Austria  occupied  Schleswig  (i  Feb.,  1864);  resistance 
of  the  Danes  ;  battles  of  Duppel ;  England's  futile  protests  ;  Christian 
IX.  of  Denmark  forced  to  yield ;  by  the  treaty  of  i  August,  confirmed 
30  October,  1864,  he  surrendered  the  duchies  to  Prussia  and  Austria. 

The  Bundestag,  led  by  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  demanded  that  the 
duchies  should  be  given  up  to  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg  ;  Bismarck 
scornfully  refused;  by  the  Convention  of  Gastein  (14  Aug,  1865) 
Prussia  and  Austria  agreed  to  a  **  condominium  "  in  the  duchies;  Aus- 
tria occupied  Holstein,  while  Prussia  occupied  Schleswig  and  pur- 
chased Lauenburg. 

Bismarck's  preparations  for  war  with  Austria  ;  the  friendliness  of 
Russia  towards  the  Prussian  schemes  ;  Bismarck's  negotiations  with  Na- 
poleon III.,  to  whom  he  offered  Belgium  and  Luxemburg  in  return  for 
neutrality. 

Bismarck  signed  an  offensive  and  defensive  treaty  with  Italy  (8  Apr., 
1866),  and  promised  to  attack  Austria  within  three  months. 

Bismarck  proposed  to  the  Bundestag  that  a  German  parliament  be 
elected  by  universal  suffrage,  that  Austria  be  excluded  from  Germany, 
and  that  the  forces  of  Germany  be  divided  into  two  armies,  of  which  the 
northern  should  be  commanded  by  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  south- 
ern by  the  King  of  Bavaria  (9  Apr.). 

Bismarck  attacked  Austria's  administration  of  Holstein  as  favoring 
the  pretensions  of  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg,  and  finally  refused  to 
submit  the  question  of  the  duchies  to  the  Bundestag  (4  May).  ' 

Outbreak  of  the  Seven  Weeks'  War  :  a  Prussian  army  under  Man- 
teuffel  (b.  1809,  d.  1885)  entered  Holstein  (7  June);  diplomatic  relations 
between  Prussia  and  Austria  broken  off  (12  June). 

Bismarck  declared  the  Pact  of  Federation  broken  (14  June");  Prussian 
troops  occupied  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse- Cassel ;  fruitless  success 
of  the  Hanoverians  at  Langensalza  (27  June);  Manteuffel  invaded 
Bavaria  and  prevented  the  South  German  states  from  lending  effective 
aid  to  Austria. 


268  rhe  Seven    Weeks'    War,  1866. 

The  campaign  of  1866  in  Italy  :  Italy  declared  war  against  Austria 
(20  June);  the  Italian  army  invaded  Venetia  and  was  defeated  by  the 
Archduke  Albert  at  Custozza  (24  June);  the  Italian  fleet  defeated  by 
Tegetthoff  at  Lissa  (20  July)  ;  an  armistice  signed  between  Austria 
and  Italy  (12  Aug.),  and  by  a  treaty  (24  Aug.)  Austria  ceded  Venetia 
to  Napoleon  III.  for  transference,  after  a  plebiscite,  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy. 

The  campaign  of  1866  in  Bohemia:  Von  Moltke's  strategical  combi- 
nations ;  junction  of  the  armies  of  the  Crown  Prince  Frederick  of 
Prussia  (b.  1831,  d.  1888)  and  Prince  Frederick  Charles  (b.  1828,  d. 
1885);  the  Austrians  under  Benedek  utterly  defeated  at  Sadowa,  or 
Koniggratz  (3  July);  armistice  signed  (22  July),  followed  by  the  Prelim- 
inaries of  Nikolsburg  (26  July),  and  the  Treaty  of  Prague  (23  Aug.). 

By  this  treaty  Austria  lost  no  territory,  but  agreed  to  the  dissolution 
of  the  Germanic  Confederation,  and  promised  to  make  no  opposition 
to  a  new  organization  of  Germany,  in  which  she  should  have  no  part. 

Prussia's  chief  advantages  from  the  war  were  not  gained  from  Aus- 
tria, but  by  the  annexation  of  the  following  states  :  Hesse-Homburg 
(3  Sept.),  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  Nassau,  the  free  city  of  Frankfort  (20 
Sept.),  and  Schleswig-Holstein  (24  Dec),  which  gave  her  an  uncon- 
tested superiority  in  Germany  ;  favorable  treaties  of  peace  made  with 
Wiirtemberg  (13  Aug.),  Baden  (17  Aug.),  Bavaria  (22  Aug.),  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  ^3  Sept.),  and  Saxony  (21  Oct.). 

When  the  great  blew  had  been  struck  and  it  was  too  late  for  him  to 
interfere  effectively.  Napoleon  III.,  by  his  ambassador,  Benedetti,  asked 
for  Rhenish  Bavaria  and  Rhenish  Hesse,  as  his  reward  for  non-inter- 
ference (6  Aug.);  William  I.  and  Bismarck  refused  (7  Aug.),  and  by 
making  known  the  request  aroused  German  feeling  against  France. 

Results  of  the  Seven  Wrecks'  War  on  the  position  of  European  politics. 

Authorities :  Debidour,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  I'Burope,  1814-78 ;  Lejlvre^ 
Histoire  de  rinterventiop  fraii^aise  au  Mexique  ;  Masseras,  Un  essai  d'empire  au 
Mexique  ;  Gaulot,  L'Empire  de  Maximilien  ;  Monicault,  La  question  d'Orieut, 
le  traite  de  Paris  et  ses  suites  (1856-71);  Bergner,  Rumanien  ;  Petrescu  and 
Stourdza,  Actes  et  documents  relatifs  a  I'histoire  de  la  regeneration  de  la  Rou- 
manie ;  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  Geschichte  Griechenlands ;  Hertzberg,  Ge- 
schichte  Griechenlands;  Thouvenel,  Trois  ann^es  de  la  question  d'  Orient  (1856-59), 
La  Grece.duroiOthon,  and  Le  Secret  dePEmpereurC  1860-63);  Zeller,  PielX.  etVic- 


The  Overthrow  of  Austria.  269 

tor  Emmanuel;  Ricasoli,  Lettereedocumenti;^^rs^2'/V?,  II  regno di  Vittorio  Eman- 
uele;  Garibaldi,  Memoirs;  Martin,  Pologne  et  Muscovie;  Batach,  La  question  polon> 
aise  dans  la  Russie  occidentale;  Arami?iski,  Histoire  de  la  revolution  polonaise  ;  LiS' 
icki^  L,e  marquis  Wielopolski ;  Leroy-Beaulieu,  Un  homme  d'etat  russc,  Nicolas 
Milutine;  Sybel,  Die  Bcgriiudung  des  deutschen  Reiches  durch  Wilhelm  I. ;  Witliam 
/.,  MilitarischeSchriftcn;  Rocn,  Denkwurdigkeiten;i^(9//^^,  Gesammelte Schriften 
und  Denkwiirdigkeiten,  and  his  Militarische  Werke  ;  Miiller,  Graf  Moltke  ;  Hahn, 
Furst  Bismarck  ;  Kohl,  Fiirst  Bismarck  ;  Busch,  Our  Chancellor ;  Lowe,  Life  of 
Bismarck  ;  Simon,  Histoire  du  prince  de  Bismarck  ;  Poschinger,  Fiirst  Bismarck 
und  der  Bundesrath  ;  Bismarck,  Gesammelte  Werke,  Briefe,  Politische  Briefe,  and 
Politischen  Reden,  and  Gedenkschriften  und  Erinnerungen,  translated  by  Butler; 
Beust,  Memoirs ;  Vitzthum  von  Eckstddt,  St.  Petersburg  and  London,  1852-64, 
and  London,  Gastein  und  Sadowa,  1864-66;  Giehne,Zwe\  Jahre  CEsterreichischer 
Politik  ;  Malet,  The  Overthrow  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  by  Prussia  in  1866; 
Loftus,  Diplomatic  Reminiscences ;  Hansen,  A  travers  la  diplomatic,  1864-67 ; 
Renouf,  Les  coulisses  de  la  diplomatic;  Rothan,  La  politique  fran9aise  en  1866; 
Benedetti,  Ma  mission  en  Prusse,  and  Essais  diplomatiques  ;  Klaczko,  Les  prelimi- 
naires  de  Sadowa,  and  Two  Chancellors,  Bismarck  and  Gortchakoflf ;  Viel-Castel, 
Memoirs;  Gz5/(?//a«^,  Journal ;  Gramont  [pseud.  Memor),  L'Allemagne  nouvelle; 
La  Marmora,  Un  pen  plus  de  lumiere  sur  les  dv^nements  militaires  et  politiques 
de  I'ann^e  1866 ;  Chiala,  Dal  congresso  di  Plombieres  al  congresso  di  Berlino,  and 
Le  g^n^ral  La  Marmora  et  I'alliance  prussienne;  Bonghi,  L'allianza  prussiana  e 
I'acquisto  del  Veneto ;  Harcourt,  Les  quatre  ministeres  de  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys ; 
Hahn,  Zwei  Jahre  preussich-deutscher  Politik,  1866-67  ;  Treitschke,  Zehn  Jahre 
deutscher  Kampfe,  1865-74;  Dicey,  The  Schleswig-Holstein  War;  Riistow,  Der 
deutsch-danische  Krieg,  1864;  Hozier,  The  Seven  Weeks'  War;  Lecomte,  Guerre 
de  la  Prusse  et  de  I'ltalie  contre  I'Autriche  et  la  Confederation  germanique  ;  Borb^ 
stddt,  Preussens  Feldziige  gegen  CEsterreich  ;  Riistow,  Der  Krieg  von  1866  im 
Deutschland  und  Italien  ;  Fontane,  Der  deutsche  Krieg  von  1866  ;  Knorr,  Der 
Feldzug  des  Jahr  1866  in  West-  und  Sud-Deutschland,  and  the  official  accounts  of 
the  wars  of  1864  and  1866  by  the  German,  Danish  and  Austrian  general  sta£fs. 


LECTURE   83. 


THE  RE-CONSTITUTION  OF  GERMANY  AND  AUSTRIA. 

After  the  signature  of  the  Treaty  of  Prague,  Prussia  propounded  a 
new  organization  for  northern  Germany  ;  the  victories  of  her  armies 
and  the  great  preponderance  she  had  obtained  over  the  other  states  by 


270  The  North  German  Confederation, 

the  annexation  of  Hanover,  etc.,  caused  Bismarck's  plan  to  be  promptly 
accepted  by  the  northern  states  {7  Feb.,  1867). 

Germany  north  of  the  Main  was  formed  into  the  North  German 
Confederation,  which  consisted  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Prussia  and 
Saxony,  the  four  grand  duchies  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz,  Saxe- Weimar,  and  Oldenburg,  five  duchies,  seven  princi- 
palities, and  the  three  free  cities  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck. 

The  federal  power  extending  over  foreign  affairs,  the  army,  coinage, 
and  all  matters  not  strictly  provincial,  was  entrusted  to  the  King  of 
Prussia  as  President  of  the  Confederation,  whose  executive  minister  was 
the  Chancellor,  appointed  by  himself;  the  King  of  Prussia  was  also 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  ;  Bismarck  appointed  chan- 
cellor (14  July). 

The  federal  legislative  authority  was  to  be  administered  by  the  Fed- 
eral Parliament,  or  Reichstag,  elected  by  universal  suffrage  in  proportion 
to  population. 

Between  the  President  and  the  Reichstag  was  established  the  Federal 
Council,  or  Bundesrath,  consisting  of  forty-three  members  appointed  by 
the  governments  of  the  different  states,  Prussia  nominating  seventeen. 

The  constitution  was  accepted  by  the  Constituent  Reichstag  (16 
Apr.,  1867),  which  voted  taxes  for  the  maintenance  of  the  army  for 
four  years. 

Von  Roon  applied  the  military  organization  of  Prussia  to  the  whole 
of  the  North  German  Confederation. 

The  South  German  states,  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  Baden  and  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  maintained  their  independence,  but  the  Zollverein,  or  Cus- 
toms-Union, was  renewed  between  them  and  the  North  German  Con- 
federation (8  July),  its  affairs  being  regulated  by  a  "  Zollparlament." 

The  condition  of  the  Austrian  Empire  after  the  Treaty  of  Prague : 
failure  of  the  unitary  constitution  granted  in  i860,  owing  to  the  absten- 
tion of  Hungarian  deputies  ;  the  struggle  between  the  federalists  and 
the  dualists  ;  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  resolved  on  a  dual  constitu- 
tion ;  Beust  (b.  1809.  d.  1886)  appointed  Austrian  Chancellor  (23  June, 
1867). 

The  dual  agreement  of  8  February,  1867  :  the  Empire  split  into  two 
parts,  Austria  and  Hungary,  each  having  separate  parliaments,  minis- 


The  Dual  Constiiuiion  of  Austro- Hungary .  271 

tries,  budgets  and  complete  internal  autonomy  ;  foreign  policy,  imperial 
finance  and  military  administration  carried  on  by  ministers  responsible 
to  a  Reichstag,  consisting  of  delegations  from  the  Austrian  and  Hunga- 
rian parliaments;  these  arrangements  embodied  in  a  Constitution,  which 
received  the  sanction  of  Francis  Joseph  ^22  Dec,  1867). 

Delight  of  the  Magyars  at  the  Dual  Constitution,  which  was  mainly 
the  work  of  Deak;  their  attitude  towards  subject  populations,  and  com- 
promise with  Croatia. 

Wrath  of  the  Slavonic  populations  at  the  Dual  Constitution  ;  the 
Slavs  of  the  north,  headed  by  the  Czechs,  being  thus  separated  from 
the  Slovaks,  Slavonians,  Croats  and  Servians  in  the  south. 

The  condition  of  Russia ;  liberal  policy  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  II. 
and  his  ministers,  except  with  regard  to  Poland. 

Russia's  advance  in  Central  Asia:  wars  in  Turkestan;  the  conquered 
tefritories  formed  into  the  Governor- Generalship  of  Turkestan  (23 
July,  1867)  ;  Bokhara  became  a  tributary  state  (1868). 

Condition  of  the  Eastern  Question  :  growth  of  Romanian  claims  for 
independence  under  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollern  ;  the  Turks  with- 
drew their  garrisons  from  Belgrade  and  the  other  Servian  fortresses  ( 1 8 
Apr.,  1867);  assassination  of  Michael  Obrenovitch  (10  June,  1868), 
and  accession  of  Milan,  as  Prince  of  Servia  ;  insurrections  in  the  Her- 
zegovina (1861-62)  and  in  Crete  (1866-69). 

Italian  aflfairs  after  the  Treaty  of  Prague  :  the  Italians  demanded  the 
evacuation  of  Rome  by  the  French  garrison  ;  the  garrison  withdrawn 
(11  Dec,  1866) ;  Garibaldi's  attack  on  Rome  (25  Oct,  1867)  ;  a  French 
army  under  De  Failly  arrived  in  Rome  to  defend  the  Pope  (30  Oct.)  ; 
defeat  of  Garibaldi  at  Mentana  (3  Nov.)  ;  withdrawal  of  the  French 
troops  to  Civita  Vecchia. 

Negotiations  of  Napoleon  III.  with  Bismarck  :  his  schemes  on  Bel- 
gium; his  schemes  on  Luxemburg,  which  had  been  ruled  hy  the  King 
of  the  Netherlands  as  a  German  state,  but  had  not  joined  the  North 
German  Confederation;  equivocal  position  of  Luxemburg,  which  was 
garrisoned  by  Prussia  ;  William  III.  of  the  Netherlands  ready  to  sell 
Luxemburg  to  France,  but  unwilling  to  do  so  without  the  consent  of 
Prussia. 

Napoleon  III.  appealed  to  Europe  on  the  question  of  Luxemburg ;  a 


272  The  Policy  of  Napoleon  III. 

conference  of  the  Great  Powers,  by  the  Treaty  of  I,ondon  (11  May,  1867), 
directed  that  the  grand  duchy  be  evacuated  by  Prussia,  that  the  fortress 
be  dismantled,  and  that  its  neutrality  be  guaranteed  by  Europe. 

Growing  weakness  and  unpopularity  of  the  Second  Empire  in  France  ; 
effect  of  the  final  failure  of  the  Mexican  expedition  (1867);  strength  of 
the  parliamentary  opposition  under  Thiers  ;  resolution  of  Napoleon  III. 
to  rule  more  in  harmony  with  popular  feeling ;  he  granted  a  measure 
of  liberty  to  the  press  (10  May,  1868),  and  the  right  of  public  meeting 
(6  June,  1868),  and  eventually  established  real  parliamentary  govern- 
ment (8  Sept.,  1869). 

Napoleon's  concessions  taken  as  a  confession  of  weakness ;  general 
hatred  and  contempt  expressed  for  the  Empire  in  France  ;  the  repub- 
lican party  grew  in  strength  and  threatened  revolution  ;  prominence  of 
Gambetta  (b.  1838,  d.  1882),  elected  deputy  for  Paris  in  1869;  vigor 
of  republican  journalism;  Henri  Rochefort  (b.  1830),  editor  of  La 
Lanterne;  influence  of  the  "International,"  founded  28  Sept.,  1864,  a 
democratic  society  of  workingmen,  directed  by  Mazzini,  Kossuth, 
Ledru-Rollin,  Karl  Marx  and  George  Odger. 

Napoleon  regarded  a  successful  war  as  the  only  means  practicable  for 
lestoring  the  authority  of  the  Empire  ;  he  was  falsely  told  that  the 
army  was  efficient ;  he  resolved  on  war  with  Prussia,  because  Bismarck 
had  foiled  his  designs  on  Luxemburg  and  he  could  promise  the  French 
people  a  restoration  of  the  "  natural  limits  "  of  France  ;  his  endeavors 
to  obtain  allies  ;  Austria  afraid  to  join  him  from  fear  of  Russia,  and 
Italy  declined,  because  of  the  French  occupation  of  Civita  Vecchia. 

William  I.  and  Bismarck  also  desired  war  with  France  ;  they  wished 
to  incorporate  the  South  German  states  and  to  complete  German  unity 
by  a  great  national  triumph. 

Napoleon  III.  formed  liberal  ministry  under  fimile  Ollivier  (3  Jan., 
1870);  he  appealed  to  a  plebiscite  and  by  7,336,434  votes  to  1,560,709 
France  declared  herself  satisfied  with  the  Empire  (8  May,  1870). 

The  pretext  for  war  derived  from  the  situation  in  Spain. 

Recent  history  of  Spain  :  unpopularity  of  Queen  Isabella  II.  ;  domi- 
nation of  the  army  and  frequency  of  military  pronunciamentos. 

Repeated  changes  of  ministry  and  alternation  of  power  between  Es- 
partero,  Narvaez  and  O'Donnell;   war  with  Morocco  (1859-60),  with 


War  Declared  by  France  agaiy^f  Prussia^  i8yo.  273 

Peru  (1864-66),  with  San  Domingo  (1864-65);  chronic  state  of  insur- 
rection in  Cuba. 

After  the  death  of  Narvaez  and  O'Donnell,  Isabella  was  abandoned  ; 
insurrection  of  September,  1868  ;  flight  of  Isabella  to  France  (30  Sept.); 
formation  of  a  provisional  government  (8  Oct.)  under  Serrano  (b.  1810, 
d.  1885),  Prim  (b.  1814,  d.  1870),  and  Topete  (b.  1820,  d.  1885). 

Meeting  of  a  constituent  assembly  at  Madrid  (11  Feb.  1869);  it  elected 
Serrano  regent  and  declared  in  favor  of  limited  monarchy  ;  candidates 
for  the  throne  of  Spain,  Don  Carlos,  the  Due  de  Montpensier,  and  Prince 
Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  ;  Prim  suggested  the  candidature  of 
a  prince  of  the  House  of  Hohenzollern;  King  William  I.  of  Prussia  gave 
permission  for  the  candidature  of  his  relative,  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen  (28  June). 

Napoleon  III.  resolved  to  make  out  of  this  candidature  a  casus  belli 
with  Prussia  ;  Benedetti  sent  to  Ems  to  demand  an  explanation  of  King 
William;  his  interviews  with  the  King  (9-1 1  July);  candidature  of 
Prince  I^eopold  for  the  throne  of  Spain  withdrawn  (12  July);  Benedetti's 
instructions  to  demand  yet  more  from  the  King  of  Prussia  ;  the  King 
left  Ems  (15  July);  Bismarck  ready  for  war  ;  mobilization  of  the  Ger- 
man armies. 

Excitement  in  Germany  at  the  behavior  of  France  ;  the  South  Ger- 
man states  prepared  to  assist  the  North  German  Confederation ;  enthu- 
siasm felt  at  the  prospect  of  war  with  France. 

England  endeavored  to  mediate,  but  Napoleon  and  Bismarck  were 
bent  upon  war;  France  declared  war  (19  July);  European  public  opinion 
regarded  the  war  as  wanton  and  sympathized  with  Prussia. 

Authorities :  Von  Sybel,  Die  Begrundung  des  deutschen  Reiches  durch  Wil- 
helm  I.;  Maurenbrecher,  Griindung  des  deutschen  Reiches  ;  Oncken,  Das  Zeitaltcr 
des  Kaisers  Wilhelm ;  W^//A(?/;w /.,  Politische  Correspondenz ;  Treilschke,  Zehn 
Jahre  deutscher  Kiimpfe,  and  Deutsche  Geschichte  im  19**°  Jahrhundert ;  Binding^ 
Die  Griindung  des  Norddeutschen  Bundes;  Biille,  Geschichte  des  zweiten  Kaiser- 
reiches  und  des  Konigreiches  Italien  ;  Viron,  Histoire  de  TAllemagne  depuis  la 
bataille  de  Sadowa  ;  Ernest,  Duke  of  Saxe-CoburgGotha,  Memoirs  ;  Rogge^  CEs- 
terreich  (1848-73);  Stillman,  The  Cretan  Insurrection  of  1866:  Delord,  Histoire 
du  Second  Empire  ;  Rothan,  La  politique  frangaise  en  1S66,  L'Affaire  de  Luxem- 
bourg, and  La  France  et  sa  politique  ext^rieure  en  1867  ;  Thiers,  Discours  parle- 
mentaires ;  Gramont  (pseud.  Mentor),  La  France  et  la  Prusse  avant  la  guerre; 


274  "^^^^  Frayico-German    War,  iSjo-yi. 

Ollivier,  Memoires,  and  Le  19  Janvier  ;  papiers  et  correspondance  de  la  famille  im- 
periale ;  Rochefort,  Memoires ;  Gambetta,  Discours  et  plaidoyers  choisis,  ed. 
Reinach;  Beust,  Memoirs ;  Benedetti,  Ma  Mission  en  Prusse,  and  EJssais  diplo- 
matiques  ;  Hahn,  Der  Krieg  Deutschlands  gegen  Frankreich  und  die  Griindung  des 
deutschen  Kaiserreichs  ;  Sorel,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  la  guerre  franco-alle- 
mande  ;  Poujade,  La  diplomatie  du  Second  Empire  et  celle  du  quatre  Septembie, 
1870;  Strobel,  The  Spanish  Revolution,  1868-1875  ;  Hubbard,  Histoire  contempo- 
raine  d'Espagne  ;  Mazade,  Les  revolutions  de  I'Espagne  contemporaine  ;  Cherbu- 
liez,  Iv'Espagne  politique  (1868-73);  Lauser,  Geschichte  Spaniens  von  dem  Sturz 
Isabellas  ;  Pirala,  Historia  contemporanea  (1843-75)  ;  Laveleye,  I,a  Prusse  et  I'Au- 
triche  depuis  Sadowa  ;  Loftus,  Diplomatic  Reminiscences,  and  many  of  the  books 
cited  under  I^ecture  80,  including  those  on  Bismarck. 


LECTURE    84. 


THE    FRANCO-aERMAN    WAR. 

Attitude  of  the  Powers  of  Europe  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
German  War;  England  declared  neutrality  (19  July,  1870),  and  Eng- 
lish public  opinion  was  aroused  against  France  by  the  publication  of 
Napoleon  III.'s  propositions  to  Bismarck  for  seizing  Belgium  ;  Russia 
declared  neutrality  (23  July;  and  threatened  to  attack  Austria,  if  that 
power  should  join  France  ;  Austria,  therefore,  remained  neutral ;  Italy 
refused  to  join  France  because  of  the  French  occupation  of  Civita 
Vecchia  ;  Denmark  alone  prepared  to  aid  Napoleon,  if  the  French  armies 
won  some  immediate  success  ;  formation  of  the  League  of  Neutrals 
(Aug. -Sept.). 

Enthusiasm  for  the  war  in  Germany  ;  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia 
took  command  of  the  contingents  of  the  South  German  states. 

Excitement  in  Paris  ;  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  left  Paris  to  take 
command  of  the  army  (28  July). 

Rapid  mobilization  of  the  German  army  ;  Moltke's  plan  of  campaign ; 
inferiority  of  the  French  military  administration  ;  change  in  the  French 
plan  of  campaign  owing  to  the  adhesion  of  the  South  German  states  to 
Prussia. 

First  campaign  of  1870  :  the  skirmish  at  Saarbriick  (2  Aug.);  battle 


The  Frayico- Germayi   War^  iSjo-yi.  275 

of  Wissembourg  (4  Aug.);  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  utterly  defeated 
MacMahon  (b.  1808,  d.  1893),  at  Worth,  or  Froschwiller,  and  Prince 
Frederick  Charles  defeated  Frossard  at  Spicheren,  or  Forbach  (6  Aug.); 
Moltke,  having  thus  broken  the  French  line,  formed  the  siege  of  Stras- 
burg  and  advanced  against  the  main  French  army  under  Bazaine  ; 
Bazaine  defeated  at  Borny  (14  Aug.),  at  Mars-la-Tour,  or  Vionville  (16 
Aug.),  and  at  Gravelotte,  or  Saint- Pri vat  (18  Aug.);  Bazaine's  army 
shut  up  in  Metz  and  besieged  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles. 

Excitement  caused  in  Paris  by  the  news  of  the  French  defeats ;  the 
Empress  Eugenie,  who  had  been  appointed  regent,  dismissed  Ollivier 
and  appointed  a  new  ministry  under  Montauban,  Comte  de  Palikao 
(10  Aug.). 

The  campaign  of  Sedan  :  the  Army  of  Chalons  under  MacMahon, 
and  accompanied  by  the  Emperor,  marched  to  relieve  Metz  ;  it  was 
utterly  defeated  by  the  main  German  army  at  Sedan  (i  Sept.);  surren- 
der of  the  French  army  (2  Sept.),  and  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  sent 
a  prisoner  into  Germany. 

Revolution  of  4  September  in  Paris  :  the  Imperial  Government  over- 
thrown ;  the  deputies  for  Paris  in  the  Legislative  Body,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Thiers,  declared  themselves  the  Government  of  National  Defence, 
with  General  Trochu,  commandant  of  Paris,  as  President ;  this  provis- 
ional government  formed  a  ministry  consisting  of  Jules  Favre  (b.  1809, 
d.  i88o\  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs;  Gambetta,  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior ;  General  Le  Flo,  Admiral  Fourichon,  Cremieux,  Ernest  Picard, 
Jules  Simon.  Dorian  and  Magnin  ;  the  other  members  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  JQational  Defence  were  Emmanuel  Arago,  Jules  Ferry  (b.  1832, 
d.  1893),  Gamier- Pages,  Eugene  Pelletan,  Glas-Bizoin  and  Henri 
Rochefort;  iStienne  Arago  made  Mayor  of  Paris. 

The  first  measures  of  the  new  French  government :  its  mistakes  ;  it 
did  not  immediately  summon  a  constituent  assembly  ;  it  persisted  in 
remaining  in  Paris  ;  it  sent  Thiers  to  endeavor  to  obtain  allies. 

Thiers'  journey  :  his  reception  in  England,  Russia,  Austria  and  Italy  ; 
the  French  garrison  had  been  withdrawn  from  Civita  Vecchia  (3  Aug.): 
Rome  was  captured  by  the  Italians  (20  Sept.),  and  declared  the  capital 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Continued  success  of  the  German  armies  in  France  ;  the  siege  of  Paris 


276  The  Franco- German    War,  iSyo-yr. 

formed  (19  Sept.^;  surrender  of  Toul  (23  Sept.),  and  of  Strasburg  (28 
Sept.);  the  Germans  advanced  south  and  took  Orlea'ns  (11  Oct.);  Bis- 
marck's negotiations  with  Bazaine  ;  his  attitude  towards  the  Govern- 
ment of  National  Defence;  surrender  of  Bazaine  and  of  Metz  (27  Oct.). 

Gambetta  left  Paris  (8  Oct.),  and  organized  a  branch  government  at 
Tours  ;  his  extraordinary  energy  and  success  in  calling  France  to  arms; 
he  advocated  war  a  outrance,  and  organized  the  Army  of  the  I^oire  ;  the 
Germans  forced  to  evacuate  Orleans,  and  defeated  at  Coulmiers  (9  Nov.); 
advance  of  the  Army  of  the  Loire  to  the  relief  of  Paris ;  critical  position 
of  the  German  besieging  army  ;  sortie  of  Trochu  from  Paris  and  battle 
of  Villiers-Champigny  (30  N0V.-2  Dec). 

Prince  Frederick  Charles  broke  the  Army  of  the  Loire  in  two,  and 
reoccupied  Orleans  (5  Dec);  the  branch  government  retired  from  Tours 
to  Bordeaux  (10  Dec);  surrender  of  Verdun  (8  Nov.),  of  Thionville  (24 
Nov. )  and  of  Montmedy  (14  Dec);  brilliant  defence  of  Belfort  (2  Nov.- 
18  Feb.). 

Effect  of  German  victories  upon  German  popular  opinion  ;  the  South 
German  states  entered  the  North  German  Confederation  (15-25  Nov.); 
the  Reichstag  offered  the  King  of  Prussia  the  title  of  Emperor  (10  Dec); 
he  declined  to  accept  it  until  it  was  offered  to  him  by  the  German  Prin- 
ces ;  this  was  done  and  William  I.  of  Prussia  was  proclaimed  German 
Emperor  at  Versailles  (18  Jan.,  187 1). 

Russia  took  advantage  of  the  war  and  of  the  existence  of  Gladstone's 
ministry  in  England  to  declare  the  abrogation  of  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 
of  Paris  of  1856  C31  Oct.,  1870);  conference  of  the  powers  upon  this  sub- 
ject at  London  (17  Jan.);  the  Treaty  of  Paris  modified  so  as  to  permit 
Russia  to  maintain  a  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea  (13  Mar.);  causes  of  France 
not  being  represented  at  the  conference ;  the  policy  of  Bismarck  with 
regard  to  the  Government  of  National  Defence. 

Final  campaign  ot  1871  ;  the  Germans  commenced  the  bombardment 
of  Paris  (5  Jan.);  operations  of  the  Army  of  the  North  under  Faid- 
herbe  ;  battle  of  Pont-Noyelles  (23  Dec,  1870);  Faidherbe's  success  at 
Bapaume  (3  Jan.,  187 1);  surrender  of  Mezieres  (2  Jan.)  and  of  Pe- 
ronne  (9  Jan.);  Faidherbe  utterly  defeated  by  Von  Goben  at  Saint- 
Quentin  (19  Jan.);  operations  of  the  Second  Army  of  the  Loire  under 
Chanzy  (b.  1823,  d.  1883);  he  was  defeated  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles 


The  Commune  of  Paris,  i8yi.  277 

at  Le  Mans  (11  Jan.);  operations  of  the  Army  of  the  East  under  Bour- 
baki ;  he  was  defeated  at  H6ricourt  (17  Jan.),  and  driven  into  Switzer- 
land ;  last  sortie  from  Paris  under  Ducrot ;  battle  of  Buzenval  (19 
Jan.);  Paris  forced  to  surrender  (28  Jan.). 

The  armistice  of  28  Jan.,  1871  ;  its  terms  ;  its  blunders  ;  conduct  of 
Jules  Favre  ;  mistakes  of  the  Government  of  National  Defence  ;  resig- 
nation by  Gambetta  of  his  authority  in  the  provinces  (6  Feb.);  elections 
held  for  a  Constituent  Assembly  (8  Feb.). 

Meeting  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  at  Bordeaux  (12  Feb.);  Thiers 
elected  "chief  of  the  executive  power  ";  signature  of  preliminaries  of 
peace  with  Germany  (26  Feb.);  the  treaty  accepted  by  the  Assembly 
(i  Mar.);  by  it  France  ceded  Alsace  and  part  of  Lorraine,  including 
Metz,  to  Germany,  and  promised  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  five  mil- 
liards of  francs  ;  definitive  treaty  signed  at  Frankfort  (10  May,  1871). 

The  Constituent  Assembly  declared  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire;  the 
proclamation  of  the  Third  French  Republic  (i  March,  1871)0 

Formation  at  Paris  of  the  Government  of  the  Commune  (18  March, 
187 1);  its  leaders  and  their  doctrines  ;  Thiers  concentrated  an  army 
at  Versailles  against  the  Commune ;  resistance  of  the  government  of 
the  Commune ;  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  and  other  hostages  shot;  the 
war  with  the  Commune ;  MacMahon  conquered  the  Commune  and 
occupied  Paris  (21-28  May);  burning  of  the  Tuileries  and  of  the 
H6tel  de  Ville. 

The  most  important  results  of  the  Franco- German  War  were  the 
completion  of  the  unity  of  Germany  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Second 
Empire  in  France ;  but  the  cession  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  more  than 
the  result  of  the  war,  raised  inextinguishable  hatred  between  the  two 
nations. 

Authorities  :  Sorel,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  la  guerre  Franco- Allemande ; 
Angehergy  Recueil  des  trait^s,  conventions,  etc.,  concernant  la  guerre  Franco-Al- 
lemande  ;  Hahn,  Der  Krieg  Deutschlands  gegen  Fraukreich  und  die  Griindung 
des  deutschen  Kaiserreichs ;  Meding,  De  Sadowa  k  Sedan  ;  IVashburne,  Corre-  . 
spondence  relating  to  the  Franco-German  War,  and  Recollections  of  a  Minister  to 
France  (1869-77)  ;  Daily  News,  War  Correspondence ;  Forbes,  My  Experience  of 
the  Franco-German  War;  Russell,  My  Diary  during  the  last  great  War;  RustoWy 
The  War  for  the  Rhine  Frontier  in  1870;  Borbstddt,  The  Franco-German  War; 
Hooper,  The  Campaign  of  Sedan  ;  Labouchere,  Diary  of  the  Besieged  Resident  in 


278  The  German  Empire. 

Paris;  Bingham^  Journal  of  the  Siege  of  Paris;  Duquet,  La  Guerre  1870-71;  Chu- 
quetf  Le  general  Chanzy  (1823-1883),  and  La  Guerre  1870-71;  Bazaine,  L'Armee 
duRhin,  and  Episodes  de  la  guerre  de  1870  etle  blocus  de  ^^X.z\Jarras,  Souvenirs  ; 
Mazade,  La  guerre  de  France,  and  Monsieur  Thiers  ;  Trochu,  L'Empire  ct  la  de- 
fense de  Paris,  and  CEuvres  posthumes ;  Chanzy ,  M^moires ;  Villefranche,  His- 
toire  du  gien^ral  Chanzy  ;  Ducroty  La  defense  de  Paris  ;  Lehautcourt,  Le  siege  de 
Paris  ;  D'Heylli,  Journal  du  siege  de  Paris;  Rothan^  L'AUemagne  et  I'ltalie,  1870- 
71  ;  HippeaUy  Histoire  diplomatique  de  la  troisieme  republique  fran9aise;  Andlau, 
Metz;  D'  AbranteSy  Essai  sur  la  regence  dc  1870  ;  Palikao,  Un  ministere  de  la  guerre 
de  vingt-quatre  jours  ;  Jules  Favre,  Le  gouvernement  de  la  Defense  nationale ; 
ClaretiCy  Histoire  de  la  revolution  de  iS'jo-'ji',  Jules  Simon,  M^moires,  Souvenirs  du 
4  Septembre,  and  Le  gouvernement  de  M.  Thiers  ;  Glas-Bizoin,  Dictature  de  cinq 
mois  ;  Valjrey,  Histoire  de  la  diplomatic  du  gouvernement  de  la  Defense  nationale  ; 
Maquest,  La  France  et  1' Europe  pendant  le  siege  de  Paris  ;  Buret,  Histoire  de 
quatre  ans  ;  Busch,  Our  Chancellor,  and  Bismarck  in  the  Franco-German  War  ; 
Mollke,  Geschichte  des  deutsch-franzosischen  Krieges  von  1870-71,  and  Militar- 
ische  Correspondenz;  Hanneken,  Bazaine  un  die  Kapitulation  von  Metz  ;  Blume, 
Operations  of  the  German  armies  in  France;  Sybel,  Der  Frieden  von  1871  ;  March, 
History  of  the  Paris  Commune  of  187 1  ;  Du  Camp,  Les  convulsions  de  Paris  ;  Ar- 
nould,  Histoire  de  la  Commune;  and  Lissagaray,  Histoire  de  la  Commune,  trans- 
lated by  Aveling. 

A  full  bibliography  is  contained  in  Palat,  Bibliographie  gendrale  de  la  guerre  de 
1870-71. 


LECTURE  85. 


EUROPE   AFTER   THE   FRANCO-GERMAN  WAR :    THE 
DREIKAISERBUND. 

Condition  of  Germany  after  the  successful  conclusion  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War ;  enthusiasm  felt  for  a  union  achieved  on  the  field  of 
battle  ,  economic  effect  of  the  war  indemnity  paid  by  France  ;  creation 
of  a  national  German  coinage  ;  the  reconstitution  of  the  North  German 
Confederation  as  the  German  Empire  ;  the  Bundesrath  increased  by  six 
voices  for  Bavaria,  four  for  Wiirtemberg,  two  for  Baden,  and  two  for 
Hesse-Darmstadt ;  the  Reichstag  increased  by  additional  represent- 
atives from  the  South  German  states,  chosen  in  the  ratio  of  one  deputy 
to  each  one  hundred  thousand  of  population. 


The   Third  French  Republic.  279 

In  spite  of  the  triumph  of  national  unity,  particularism  made  itself 
felt  in  the  Reichstag  ;  though  the  German  princes  remained  true  to  the 
Empire,  the  Polish,  Schleswig,  and  Hanoverian  deputies  formed  sepa- 
rate and  irreconcilable  parties,  while  Alsace-Lorraine  refused  to  elect 
any  deputies  until  1874. 

The  administration  of  Alsace-Lorraine  (Elsass-Lothringen);  its  or- 
ganization as  a  Reichsland,  or  territory  of  the  Empire  (1879);  its  gover- 
nors, ManteufFel  (1879-85)  and  Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst  (1885-94). 

The  reorganization  of  France  ;  by  the  policy  of  Thiers  and  the  finan- 
cial skill  of  Pouyer-Quertier,  the  war  indemnity  was  paid ;  France 
finally  evacuated  by  the  German  army  (16  Sept.,  1873). 

The  Constituent  Assembly  at  Versailles  :  the  position  of  parties  ;  the 
majority  consisted  of  monarchists  and  ultramontanes ;  deliberate  tardi- 
ness shown  in  drawing  up  a  new  constitution  for  France  ;  pending  its 
adoption,  the  presidency  of  Thiers  was  renewed  (31  Aug.,  1871). 

The  majority  of  the  Assembly,  which  favored  monarchy,  divided  into 
Legitimist,  Orleanist,  and  Bonapartist  parties,  and  therefore  unable  to 
agree  upon  a  king  or  emperor  ;  increasing  influence  of  the  republican 
minority,  led  by  Gambetta,  in  France. 

The  monarchical  majority  in  the  Assembly  forced  Thiers  to  resign 
(24  May,  1873),  a^^  elected  MacMahon  to  the  temporary  presidency  of 
the  Republic;  the  administration  of  the  Due  de  Broglie  (b.  1821);  he 
prepared  the  way  for  the  restoration  of  monarchy  by  appointing  anti- 
republican  prefets  and  officials;  fusion  of  the  Legitimist  and  Orleanist 
parties;  the  Comte  de  Paris  (b.  1838,  d.  1894),  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe,  recognized  the  Comte  de  Chambord  (b.  1820,  d.  1883),  grand- 
son of  Charles  X.,  as  the  legitimate  king,  regarding  himself  as  next 
heir  to  the  throne  as  the  representative  of  hereditary,  not  of  parliamen- 
tary, monarchy  (5  Aug.,  1873);  the  impracticable  character  of  the 
Comte  de  Chambord ;  his  refusal  to  abandon  the  white  flag  or  to  make 
any  recognition  of  parliamentary  institutions  (27  Oct.);  the  cause  of  the 
Comte  de  Chambord  abandoned  by  the  Due  de  Broglie  and  the  parlia- 
mentary monarchists;  election  of  MacMahon  as  President  of  the  French 
Republic  for  seven  years  (19  Nov.). 

Completion  of  the  French  Constitution  (25  Feb.,  1875):  its  con- 
servative nature;  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies;  the  presi- 


28o  Spain  and  Italy ^  i8yo-y6. 

dency  to  be  held  for  seven  years  and  the  President  to  be  elected  not  by 
popular  vote,  but  by  a  joint  ballot  of  the  two  Chambers;  the  working  of 
parliamentary  government  in  France;  frequent  changes  of  ministry,  the 
result  of  the  existence  of  parliamentary  groups  instead  of  well-defined 
parties. 

Condition  of  Spain:  election  of  Amadeus  (b.  1845,  d.  1890),  second 
son  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  to  be  King  of  Spain  (16  Nov.,  1870);  assas- 
sination of  Marshal  Prim  (30  Dec);  Amadeus  commenced  his  reign  (2 
Jan.,  1 871);  Don  Carlos  (b.  1848),  grandson  of  the  first  Don  Carlos, 
raised  a  rebellion  in  the  northern  provinces  (1872);  the  Carlist  War  not 
discouraged  in  the  southern  provinces  of  France,  owing  to  the  mon- 
archical character  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  and  its  desire  to  please 
the  Comte  de  Chambord;  difficult  position  of  Amadeus;  his  resignation 
of  the  throne  of  Spain  (11  Feb.,  1873). 

Proclamation  of  a  Spanish  Republic  (11  Feb.,  1873)  ;  Emilio  Caste- 
lar  (b.  1832,  d.  1899)  elected  President  (9  Sept.)  ;  General  Pavia  dis- 
solved the  Cortes  by  armed  force  (3  Jan.,  1874)  ;  Serrano  assumed  the 
presidency  (3  Jan.)  ;  the  **  intransigente  "  insurrection  suppressed  at 
Cartagena  (12  Jan.). 

Pronunciamento  of  Martinez  Campos  (29  Dec,  1874);  overthrow  of 
Serrano  ;  Alfonso  XII.,  only  son  of  Queen  Isabella,  recognized  as  King 
of  Spain  (31  Dec.)  ;  suppression  of  the  Carlist  rebellion  completed 
(March,  1876). 

The  political  situation  in  Italy:  the  government  transferred  from 
Florence  to  Rome  (1871);  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  building  up  a 
national  government  based  upon  parliamentary  institutions ;  particu- 
larism ;  hostility  of  the  Papacy  ;  the  Right,  or  conservative  party,  in 
power  under  Lanza  (1869-73)  ^^^  Minghetti  (1873-76);  the  Left,  or  rad- 
ical party,  admitted  to  office  under  Depretis  (Feb.,  1876);  the  influence 
of  Victor  Emmanuel. 

The  attitude  of  the  Papacy  towards  European  politics  since  the  for- 
mation of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  :  Pius  IX.  and  Cardinal  Antonelli,  his 
Secretary  of  State,  refused  to  recognize  the  new  order  of  things  ;  their 
religious  policy;  meeting  of  an  (Ecumenical  Council,  the  first  since  the 
Council  of  Trent,  held  at  Rome  (Dec,  1869-Oct.,  1870)  ;  efiect  on  the 
papacy  of  the  conquest  of  Rome  and  its  recognition  as  the  capital  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy  (1870). 


The  Policy  of  Bismarck.  281 

Increased  power  given  to  the  Catholic  Church  in  Germany  by  the 
absorption  of  the  South  German  states  into  the  Empire ;  Bismarck's 
dislike  of  Ultramontanism,  which  he  regarded  as  impairing  the  spirit  of 
national  unity  ;  owing  to  the  strength  of  the  Ultramontane  party  in 
the  Reichstag,  Bismarck  attacked  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
Prussia  only,  where  the  Protestants  had  a  majority  in  the  Landtag  ; 
the  Kulturkampf ;  laws  passed,  restraining  the  power  of  the  Catholic 
Church  (1872-1876),  especially  the  May  Laws  (11-14  May  1873) ;  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Jesuits  from  Prussia  (4  July,  1872;  ;  attitude  of  Pope 
Pius  IX.  ;  protests  of  the  South  German  states,  and  especially  of 
Bavaria,  against  Bismarck's  anti- Catholic  policy. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Bismarck  :  his  aim  to  prevent  France  from  ob- 
taining any  allies  in  Europe  ;  he  remained  on  friendly  terms  with  Rus- 
sia, whose  Tsar,  Alexander  II.,  was  the  nephew  and  friend  of  the  Em- 
peror William,  but  suspected  the  Russian  Chancellor,  Gorchdkov  ; 
being  unwilling  to  trust  entirely  to  Russia,  he  looked  for  other  allies  ; 
England  under  Gladstone  (1868-74)  refused  to  interfere  in  Continental 
politics  ;  Bismarck  therefore  entered  into  close  relations  with  Austria. 

The  position  of  Austria  :  discontent  of  the  Slavs  with  the  Dual  Con- 
stitution ;  Russia  encouraged  the  Pan-Slavic  idea,  and,  therefore,  in 
spite  of  the  memory  of  Sadowa,  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  was  ready 
to  enter  into  alliance  with  the  Emperor  William  ;  dismissal  of  the 
Austrian  Chancellor  Beust,  the  enemy  of  Prussia  (8  Nov.,  1871)  ;  he 
was  succeeded  as  Minister  of  Foreign  AiFairs  by  Andrassy  (b.  1823,  d. 
1890). 

Formation  of  the  Dreikaiserbund,  or  Alliance  of  the  Three  Emperors, 
of  Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria  (Sept.,  1872);  comparison  between 
the  Dreikaiserbund  and  the  Holy  Alliance  ;  its  aims  :  (i)  to  maintain 
the  status  quo  in  Europe  ;  (2)  to  act  in  harmony  on  the  Eastern  Ques- 
tion; (3)  to  oppose  the  progress  of  revolutionary,  Socialist,  and  Nihilist 
movements. 

Triumphant  position  of  Bismarck  ;  he  became  the  dictator  of  Europe, 
as  Metternich  formerly  had  been  ;  characteristics  of  his  diplomacy. 

Authorities  :  Mailer,  Kaiser  Wilhclm  ;  Hahtiy  Wilhelm,  der  erste  Kaiser  des 
neuen  deutschen  Reichs ;  Oncken,  Das  Zeitalter  des  Kaisers  Wilhelm  ;  Simony 
L'Empereur  Guillaume  et  son  rdgue  ;  Forbes,   William  of  Germany  ;  Heigel, 


282  The  Eastern  Question, 

Kdnig  Ludwig  II.  von  Bayern  ;  Lowe,  Life  of  Bismarck  ;  Busch,  Our  Chancellor ; 
Hahn,  Furst  Bismarck  ;  Kohl,  Fiirst  Bismarck  ;  Miiller,  Reichskanzler  Ftirst  Bis- 
marck ;  Shnon,  Histoire  du  prince  de  Bismarck  ;  Klaczko,  The  Two  Chancellors  ; 
Mohl,  Das  deutsche  Staatsrecht ;  Whitman,  Germany  ;  Blum,  Das  deutsche  Reich 
2ur  zeit  Bismarck's  ;  Hahn,  Geschichte  des  Kulturkampfes  im  Preussen  ;  Schulte, 
Geschichte  des  Kulturkampfes  in  Preussen  ;  Wiermann,  Geschichte  des  Kultur- 
kampfes ;  Lefebvre  de  Bihaine,  Leon  XIII.  et  le  prince  de  Bismarck  ;  Pressenst, 
La  politique  religieuse  de  la  Prusse  ;  Veron,  Histoire  de  I'Allemagne  depuis  Sa- 
dowa ;  Zevort,  Histoire  de  la  troisieme  republique ;  Jules  Simon,  Le  gouverne- 
ment  de  M.  Thiers  ;  Doniol,  M.  Thiers  (1871-1873) ;  Chesnelong,  La  campagne 
monarchique  d'Octobre  1873  ;  Daudet,  La  v^rite  sur  I'essai  de  restauration  en 
1873  ;  ^^  Barail,  Mes  souvenirs  ;  Broglie,  La  mission  de  M.  de  Gontaut-Biron 
a  Berlin  (1872-78)  ;  Stche,  Jules  Simon,  sa  vie,  son  temps,  son  ceuvre  (1814-96); 
Hippeau,  Histoire  diplomatique  de  la  troisieme  republique  ;  Chaudordy,  La 
France  et  la  suite  de  la  guerre  de  1870-71  ;  Gambetta,  Discours ;  Rogge,  CE-^ter- 
reich  von  Vildgos  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (1849-73);  Beust,  Memoirs;  Houghton, 
Origin  of  the  Restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  Spain  ;  Valras,  Don  Carlos  VII.  et 
PEspagne  Carliste,  and  Gallenga,  Iberian  Reminiscences. 


LECTURE    86. 


THE  EASTERN   QUESTION:    THE  RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR,    1877-78. 

Condition  of  the  Turkish  Empire  during  the  latter  years  of  the 
Sultan  Abdul  Aziz:  increasing  weakness  of  the  civil  and  financial  admin- 
istration ;  the  pledges  given  after  the  Crimean  War  for  the  more  tolerant 
government  of  the  Christians  broken;  relying  on  the  protection  of  the 
Western  Powers,  all  reforms  were  refused. 

Attitude  of  the  Sultan  towards  Egypt:  increased  importance  of  that 
country  to  England  after  the  completion  of  the  Suez  Canal  (17  Nov., 
1869);  the  title  of  Khedive  made  hereditar5^  by  primogeniture  in  the 
family  of  Mehemet  Ali  (27  May,  1866);  the  power  of  the  Khedive  in 
local  affairs  increased  (June,  1867);  the  two  previous  grants  confirmed 
and  the  Khedive  allowed  to  make  treaties  with  foreign  powers  and  to 
maintain  an  army  (June,  1873). 

Continued  interest  taken  by  Russia  in  the  Eastern  Question:  the 
Tsar  Alexander  II.,  having  freed  himself  from  the  restrictions  of  the 


Russia  and  the  Eastern  Question.  283 

Treaty  of  Paris  (1871),  desired  to  intervene  on  behalf  of  the  Christian 
subjects  of  the  Sultan ;  by  pursuing  vigorously  the  classic  policy  of 
Russia  he  hoped  to  counteract  the  growth  of  Nihilism. 

The  progress  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia  :  the  Khan  of  Khiva  forced 
to  cede  a  large  part  of  his  territories  and  to  acknowledge  the  suzerainty 
of  the  Tsar  (24  Aug.,  1873)  ;  Khokand  annexed  (14  Mar.,  1876); 
Russian  intrigues  in  Afghanistan;  gradual  advance  towards  the  fron- 
tiers of  British  India. 

Growth  of  the  Pan-Slavic  idea  in  Russia :  the  writings  of  Katkov  (b. 
1818,  d.  1887). 

Character  and  policy  of  Alexander  Gorchakov  (b.  1798,  d.  1883), 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  (29  Apr.,  1856-3  Apr.,  1882). 

Attitude  of  Europe  towards  the  Eastern  Question:  England,  where 
Disraeli  (b.  1804,  d.  1881)  succeeded  Gladstone  (1874),  was  appre- 
hensive of  the  Russian  advance  on  India  and  Constantinople;  purchase 
of  the  Khedive's  Suez  Canal  shares  (25  Nov.,  1875);  Austrian  jealousy 
of  Russian  interference  in  southeastern  Europe,  and  dislike  of  the  Pan- 
Slavic  propaganda;  France  too  much  occupied  with  internal  disputes  to 
interfere;  Bismarck's  declaration  that  the  Eastern  Question  "is  not 
worth  the  bones  of  a  Pomeranian  grenadier. ' ' 

Outbreak  of  insurrection  among  the  Christians  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina (July,  1875);  encouraged  by  Prince  Milan  of  Servia  and  Prince 
Nicholas  of  Montenegro;  the  condition  of  Servia  ;  adoption  of  a  repre- 
sentative constitution  (1869)  ;  the  position  in  Montenegro  ;  Daniel,  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty,  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Nicholas  (i860),  who 
fomented  disturbances  against  the  Turkish  government  in  the  neigh- 
boring provinces. 

The  Great  Powers  presented  a  joint  note  to  the  Sultan  (31  Jan.,  1876), 
demanding  reforms  and  religious  liberty  for  the  people  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  ;  the  Tsar  Alexander  forbade  the  Turks  to  attack  Ser^'ia 
or  Montenegro;  the  Dreikaiserbund  threatened  the  Turks  with  pun- 
ishment, if  reforms  were  not  granted  (12  May);  refusal  of  England  to 
act  with  the  other  powers  (19  May). 

Excitement  among  the  Muhammadan  population  in  the  Turkish 
dominions;  policy  of  Midhat  Pasha;  palace  revohition  (30  May,  1876); 
overthrow  and  subsequent  murder  of  Abdul  Aziz  ;  Murad  V.  pro- 
claimed Sultan. 


284  The  Russo-Turkish   War^  iSyy-yS. 

Prince  Milan  of  Servia  declared  war  against  the  Turks  (30  June, 
1876);  the  Servian  army  organized  and  commanded  by  Russian  officers 
under  Chernaiev;  Prince  Nicholas  of  Montenegro  declared  war  against 
the  Turks  (2  July);  the  insurgents  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  declared 
those  provinces  annexed  to  Servia  and  Montenegro. 

Excitement  in  Turkey;  defeat  of  the  Servians  (July-Sept.);  ''the 
Bulgarian  massacres  "  ;  intervention  of  the  Great  Powers  in  the  name 
of  humanity  (i  Sept.,  1876). 

Deposition  of  Murad  V.  and  accession  of  Abdul  Hamid  II.  (31  Aug., 
1876);  the  Porte  promised  reform,  and  the  creation  of  a  Turkish  par- 
liament; illusory  nature  of  this  step;  Ignatiev,  the  Russian  ambassador, 
presented  an  ultimatum  to  the  Sultan  demanding  the  effective  protec- 
tion of  the  Christians  in  Turkey  (31  Oct.). 

Conference  of  the  Great  Powers  at  Constantinople  (12  Dec,  1876-20 
Jan.,  1877);  the  Sultan  refused  to  grant  the  demands  made  of  him 
(18  Jan.);  overthrow  of  Midhat  Pasha  (5  Feb.). 

Russia  and  the  Turks  prepared  for  war;  military  enthusiasm  in  both 
countries;  peace  signed  betw^een  Servia  and  the  Sultan  (28  Feb.).  \ 

The  Tsar  declared  war  against  the  Turks  (24  Apr.,  1877). 

The  campaign  of  1877:  lyoris  Melikov  (b.  1826,  d.  1888)  advanced 
into  Armenia,  and  the  main  Russian  army  under  the  Tsar  traversed 
Romania,  crossed  the  Danube  and  invaded  Bulgaria;  the  Balkans 
reached  and  the  Shipka  Pass  seized  by  Gurko ;  successes  of  the  Turks; 
retreat  of  Loris  Melikov  and  check  of  the  main  Russian  army  by  Os- 
man  Pasha  (b.  1832)  at  Plevna;  reinforcement  of  the  Russian  armies; 
assistance  rendered  by  the  Romanians  ;  I^oris  Melikov  took  Kars  (18 
Nov.),  and  Todleben  stormed  Plevna  (10  Dec);  the  Russian  advance 
on  Constantinople  ;  passage  of  the  Balkans  (Jan.,  1878)  ;  defeat  of  the 
Turkish  armies  ;  achievements  of  Gurko  (b.  1828),  and  of  Skobelev  (b. 
1843,  d.  1882);  occupation  of  Adrianople  (20  Jan.);  an  English  fleet  en- 
tered the  Dardanelles;  Convention  of  Adrianople  (31  Jan.,  1878);  con- 
clusion of  an  armistice;  the  English  fleet  anchored  before  Constanti- 
nople (13  Feb.). 

Treaty  of  San  Stefano  (3  Mar.,  1878)  between  Russia  and  Turkey: 
the  Turks  agreed  to  the  entire  independence  of  Romania,  Servia  and 
Montenegro  with  some  extension  of  their  territories*;  to  the  creation  of 


The   Congress  of  Berlin,  285 

a  principality  of  Bulgaria,  and  to  the  grant  to  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
of  the  reforms  demanded  by  the  Conference  of  Constantinople,  with 
autonomy  ;  E.u:::sla  received  Kars  and  Batum  and  the  retrocession  of 
Bessarabia  from  Romania  in  exchange  for  the  territory  ceded  to 
Romania  by  Turkey;  by  this  treaty  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  Europe 
would  have  been  practically  destroyed. 

General  alarm  in  Europe:  protest  of  Austria  against  the  increase  of 
the  power  of  Russia;  demand  of  England,  where  Salisbury  (b.  1830) 
succeeded  Derby  as  Foreign  Minister  (2  Apr.,  1878),  that  the  Treaty 
of  San  Stefano  be  submitted  to  a  Congress  of  the  Powers ;  England 
made  a  secret  convention  with  the  Turks  (4  June),  by  which  she 
received  Cyprus  and  the  charge  of  defending  the  dominions  of  Turkey 
in  Asia;  Bismarck  declared  himself  "  an  honest  broker  ". 

The  Congress  of  Berlin  (13  June-13  July,  1878):  the  representatives 
present  were:  for  Germany,  Bismarck,  Biilow  and  Hohenlohe-Schillings- 
fiirst ;  for  Austria,  Andrassy,  Karolyi  and  Haymerle  ;  for  Russia, 
Gorchakov,  Shuvalov  and  Oubril ;  for  England,  Beaconsfield,  Salisbury 
and  Odo  Russell;  for  France,  Waddington,  Saint- Vallier  and  Desprez  ; 
for  Italy,  Corti  and  De  Launay  ;  and  for  Turkey,  Caratheodori  Pasha, 
Sadullah  Bey  and  Mehemet  Ali  Pasha. 

By  the  Congress  of  Berlin  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  was  modified: 
.Russia  retained  the  accessions  of  territory  she  had  then  received;  Servia, 
Montenegro  and  Romania  were  recognized  as  independent  states  and 
received  small  additions  of  territory;  Austria  was  entrusted  with  the 
government  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina;  the  large  principality  of  Bul- 
garia, as  defined  by  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  was  replaced  by  a  small 
principality  of  Bulgaria,  under  Turkish  suzerainty,  and  a  semi-inde- 
pendent Turkish  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  while  Macedonia  re- 
mained part  of  the  Turkish  Empire  ;  Greece  received  an  extension  of 
frontier  in  Thessaly  and  Epirus. 

Disgust  of  Alexander  II.  and  Gorchakov  at  the  proceedings  of  the 
Congress  of  Berlin,  but  Russia  was  too  exhausted  by  the  war  to  under- 
take active  opposition:  particular  resentment  felt  by  Alexander  and 
Gorchdkov  towards  Bismarck,  whom  they  declared  wanting  in  grati- 
tude for  the  services  Russia  had  rendered  to  Prussia  in  1866  and  1870; 
practical  dissolution  of  the  Dreikaiserbund,  or  Alliance  of  the  Three 
Emperors. 


286  The  Triple  Alliajice. 

Authorities :  Most  of  the  books  cited  under  Lecture  83  deal  also  with  the 
period  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War;  but  see  also  Leouzon-Leduc,  L'Bnipereur  Aler- 
andre  II.;  Bamberg,  Geschichte  der  orientalische  Frage;  Gallenga,  Two  Years  of 
the  Eastern  Question  ;  Vambiry,  Central  Asia  and  the  Anglo-Russian  Frontier 
Question,  and  The  Coming  Struggle  for  India  ;  Hellwald,  The  Russians  in  Cen- 
tral Asia;  Rawlinson,  England  and  Russia  in  the  East;  Popowski,  Rival  Powers  in 
Central  Asia  ;  Liwof,  Michel  Katkof  et  son  dpoque  ;  Leroy-Beaulieu,  I^a  France, 
la  Russie  et  I'Europe  ;  Wyrouboff,  La  Question  d' Orient  et  le  Traits  de  Berlin; 
Rogge,  O^sterreich  seit  der  Katastrophe  Hohenwart-Beust,  (1873-78)  ;  Rustow, 
Der  orientalische  Krieg  in  den  Jahren  1877  und  1878;  Le  Faure,  Histoire  de  la 
guerre  d'Orient,  1877-78  ;  Farcy,  La  guerre  sur  le  Danube,  1877-78  ;  Greene,  The 
Russo-Turkish  War  ;  Hozier,  The  Russo-Turkish  War  ;  Baker,  The  War  in  Bul- 
garia ;  Williams,  The  Armenian  Campaign  ;  Daily  News,  War  Correspondence. 
1877-78;  Gay,  Plevna,  the  Sultan  and  the  Porte ;  Bacarescu,  Rumanien's  Antheil 
am  Kriege,  1877-78,  and  Brunswick,  Le  Traite  de  Berlin. 


LECTURE  8: 


EUROPE  TO   1890:    THE  TRIPLE  ALLIANCE. 

In  his  fear  of  the  resentment  of  Russia  for  his  attitude  at  the  Congress 
of  Berlin,  Bismarck  drew  closer  to  Austria  and  signed  an  offensive  and 
defensive  alliance  with  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  (7  Oct.,  1879);  this 
alliance,  when  joined  in  1882  by  Italy,  became  the  Triple  Alliance,  which 
agreed  to  check  the  desire  of  France  to  recover  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  and 
the  attempts  of  Russia  to  reopen  the  Eastern  Question  ;  from  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Tsar  Alexander  III.  (1881)  until  the  end  of  the  administra- 
tion of  Bismarck  (1890),  the  Triple  Alliance  was  on  more  or  less  friendly 
terms  with  Russia,  dominated  Europe,  and  maintained  peace ;  frequent 
interchange  of  royal  visits. 

Germany  :  internal  policy  of  Bismarck  ;  after  the  death  of  Pope  Pius 
IX.  and  the  election  of  Pope  I^eo  XIII.  (1878),  Bismarck  softened  the 
application  of  the  May  Laws  (1880-87),  and  entered  into  negotiations 
with  the  Papacy  ;  end  of  the  Kulturkampf  (1887)  ;  Bismarck  and  So- 
cialism ;  his  legislation  against  the  Socialists  ;  relations  between  Prus- 
sia and  the  other  German  states  ;  Bismarck's  colonial  policy  ;  death  of 
the  Emperor  William  I.  (9  Mar.,  1888)  ;  death  of  his  successor,  the  Em- 


The  Great  Powers  to  i8go.  287 

peror  Frederick  (15  June)  ;  accession  of  the  Emperor  William  IL  fb. 
i859)«»  his  character  and  policy. 

Russia:  assassination  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  II.  (13  Mar.,  1881)  ; 
the  reign  of  the  Tsar  Alexander  III.  (1881-94);  his  character  and 
policy  ;  Gorchakov  succeeded  by  De  Giers  (3  Apr.,  1882)  as  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  ;  relations  with  Turkey  and  the  Balkan  States;  pro- 
gress of  Russia  in  Central  Asia  ;  annexation  of  Merv  (11  Feb.,  1884)  ; 
the  affair  of  Penjdeh  (30  Mar.,  1885)  ;  war  with  England  averted  ;  the 
Trans-Caspian  and  Trans  Siberian  railroads;  Russian  finance;  De 
Witte  (b.  1849)  ;  internal  affairs  ;  Nihilism. 

France:  MacMahon,  President  of  the  French  Republic  (i 873-79  \ 
Jules  Gr^vy  (1879-87),  and  Sadi  Carnot  (1887-94)  ;  desire  to  recover 
Alsace  and  I^orraine  ;  the  second  ministry  of  the  Due  de  Broglie  '  17 
May-20  Nov.,  1877)  ;  he  made  another  fruitless  effort  to  restore  the 
monarchy  ;  since  his  overwhelming  defeat  at  the  elections  of  14  Oct  , 
1877,  the  government  of  France  has  been  frankly  republican  ;  the  in- 
fluence of  Gambetta  ;  struggle  with  the  Catholic  Church  similar  to 
Bismarck's  Kulturkampf  (1879-81)  ;  death  of  Gambetta  (31  Dec, 
1882)  ;  banishment  of  the  Orleanist  and  Bonapartist  princes  (22  June, 
1S86)  ;  the  Panama  Canal  scandal  ;  Boulanger  (b.  1837,  ^-  1891)  ;  the 
Centenary  of  1789  and  Paris  Exposition  (1889)  ;  material  prosperity  of 
France,  but  increasing  discredit  of  parliamentary  government ;  fre- 
quent c  ianges  of  ministry  ;  France  in  Africa,  Madagascar  and  the 
Farther  Bast. 

Italy:  death  of  Victor  Emmanuel  and  accession  of  Humbert  (9  Jan., 
1878) ;  death  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  (7  Feb.,  1878)  and  election  of  Leo  XIII. 
— Pecci — (20  Feb.)  ;  death  of  Garibaldi  (2  June,  1882)  ;  relations  be- 
tween Tie  Italian  kingdom  and  the  Papacy;  "Italia  irredenta";  colonial 
policy  ;  attempt  to  occupy  the  Abyssinian  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  finan- 
cial distress  of  Italy  ;  the  ministries  of  Depretis  (b.  1813,  d.  1887)  and 
Crispi  (b.  1819;  ,  Italy  as  a  member  of  the  Triple  Alliance. 

Austro-Hungary  :  the  dual  monarchy  ;  its  failure  to  promote  a 
national  patriotism  ;  the  selfish  policy  of  the  Mag3'ars  ;  discontent  of 
the  Czechs  and  Slavs  ;  wise  policy  of  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph, 
whose  personality  has  held  the  Empire  together;  his  share  in  the  Triple 
Alliance;  Andrassy,  State  Chancellor  (187 1-79\  Haymeri^  (1879-81) 


288  The  Lesser  Powers  to  i8po. 

and  Kalnoky  .(1881-95)  J  relations  with  Turkey  and  the  Balkan  States  ; 
the  Austrian  administration  of  Bosnia  ;  the  ministries  of  Taaffe  (b.  1833, 
d.  1895)  in  Austria,  and  of  Tisza  (b.  1830)  in  Hungary. 

Sweden  and  Norway  :  reigns  of  Marshal  Bernadotte  under  the  title 
of  Charles  John  XIV.  (1818-44),  of  Oscar  I.  (1844-59),  of  Charles  XV. 
(1859-72)  and  of  Oscar  II.  (1872-  )  ;  opposition  in  Norway  to  the 
dual  monarchy  ;  democratic  and  republican  ideas  of  the  Norwegians  ; 
since  18 15  Sweden  has  ceased  to  play  a  prominent  part  in  European 
politics. 

Denmark:  reign  of  Christian  IX.  (1863-  );  constitutional  struggles; 
his  relations  with  Russia  and  England. 

The  Netherlands:  death  of  William  III.  (23  Nov.,  1890);  succeeded 
in  the  Netherlands  by  his  daughter,  Wilhelmina  (b.  1880),  and  in 
Luxemburg  by  Adolphus,  Duke  of  Nassau. 

Belgium  :  character  and  policy  of  Leopold  II.  (1865-  );  his  interest 
in  the  Congo  Free  State. 

Spain:  death  of  Alfonso  XII.  (25  Nov.,  1885);  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Alfonso  XIII.  (b.  17  May,  1886),  under  the  regency  of  his  widow, 
Maria  Christina  ;  the  ministries  of  Canovas  del  Castillo  (b.  1828,  d. 
1897)  ^^d  of  Sagasta  (b.  1827). 

Portugal:  reigns  of  Pedro  V.  (1853-61),  Luis  I.  (1861-89)  and 
Charles  I.  (1889-  );  the  career  of  Saldanha  (b.  1791,  d.  1876); 
growing  spirit  of  nationality;  financial  troubles. 

Switzerland:  growth  of  republican  and  democratic  ideas. 

The  Eastern  Question  after  the  Russo-Turkish  War :  attitude  of 
Russia,  England  and  the  Triple  Alliance ;  danger  of  European  war 
arising  out  of  the  situation  in  Bulgaria. 

Turkey:  the  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  II.;  his  personal  government; 
introduction  of  Western  ideas;  clever  foreign  policy. 

Greece  :  reign  of  George  I. ;  action  of  Greece  during  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  ;  Thessaly  given  to  Greece  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin  and 
occupied  (1881);  desire  to  annex  Crete  and  Macedonia. 

Romania  declared  an  independent  kingdom  and  Prince  Charles  pro- 
claimed king  (26  Mar.,  1881);  development  of  parliamentary  govern- 
ment ;  John  Brateano  (b.  1822,  d.  1891) ;   "  Romania  irredenta." 

Montenegro:  Prince  Nicholas;  his  close  relations  with  Russia;  the  addi- 


Bulgaria  and  Egypt.  289 

tional  territory,  including  the  port  of  Antivari,  granted  by  the  Congress 
of  Berlin,  transferred  b>^  the  Turks  under  the  pressure  of  the  Great 
Powers  (188 1.) 

Servia:  proclamation  of  Prince  Milan  as  king  (6  Mar.,  1882);  war 
with  Bulgaria  (1885);  abdication  of  Milan  (6  Mar.,  1889)  in  favor  of 
his  son,  Alexander  I.  (b.  1876). 

Bulgaria:  Alexander  of  Battenberg  elected  Prince  of  Bulgaria  (29 
Apr.,  1879);  general  uprising  in  Eastern  Roumelia  (18  Sept.,  1885)  and 
declaration  of  its  union  with  Bulgaria ;  Servia  declared  war  against 
Bulgaria  (14  Nov.);  victories  of  Prince  Alexander  at  Slivnitza  (16-19 
Nov.);  armistice  signed  (21  Dec);  Prince  Alexander  forced  to  abdicate 
and  withdraw  from  Bulgaria  (3  Sept.,  1886);  power  and  influence  of 
the  Regent  Stambulov  (b.  1855,  d.  1895);  he  secured  the  election  of 
Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg,  as  Prince  of  Bulgaria  (  7  July,  1887),  but 
continued  in  power  as  Prime  Minister ;  disapproval  by  the  Great 
Powers,  especially  Russia,  of  events  in  Bulgaria. 

Egypt:  the  rivalry  of  England  and  France  in  the  Mediterranean; 
dual  control  established  over  the  government  of  Egypt,  which  was 
practically  bankrupt  (1878);  deposition  of  the  Khedive  Ismail  (26  June, 
1879);  Arabi  Pasha  raised  an  insurrection  against  the  new  Khedive, 
Tewfik  (1881);  riot  in  Alexandria  (11  June,  1882);  England  inter- 
vened, bombarded  Alexandria  (11  July),  overthrew  Arabi  Pasha  in  the 
battle  of  Tel-el- Kebir  (13  Sept.),  and  maintained  a  garrison  in  Egypt; 
opposition  of  France  and  protests  of  the  Sultan;  first  appearance  of  the 
Mahdi  in  the  Sudan  in  the  summer  of  1881;  his  destruction  of  two 
Egyptian  armies  under  Hicks  Pasha  (3-6  Nov.,  1883),  and  under  Baker 
Pasha  (4  Feb.,  1884);  England  undertook  to  defend  Egypt  against 
the  Mahdi;  return  of  Gordon  Pasha  (b.  1834)  to  Khartum  (Feb.,  1884); 
expedition  of  Wolseley  to  relieve  Khartum  (Sept.,  1884-July,  1885); 
fall  of  Khartum  and  murder  of  Gordon  (26  Jan.,  1885);  the  Mahdi 
complete  master  of  the  Sudan;  his  death  (21  June);  desultory  warfare 
carried  on  against  his  successor,  the  Khalifa;  organization  of  a  new 
administrative  and  judicial  system  in  Egypt  under  English  super- 
vision ;  the  work  of  Sir  Evelyn  Baring,  Lord  Cromer  (b.  1840). 

Africa:  France  established  a  protectorate  over  Tunis  (12  May»  1881)  ; 
the  Germans  occupied  Angra  Pequena  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  (2 


290  Dismissal  of  Bismarck, 

May,  1883);  Massowah,  on  the  Red  Sea,  occupied  by  the  Italians  (6  Feb., 
1885) ;  interest  in  the  Congo  region  of  Leopold,  King  of  the  Belgians, 
who  called  for  a  conference  on  Africa,  which  met  at  Berlin  (15  Nov., 
1884-26  Feb.,  1885)  ;  the  Conference,  in  the  General  Act  of  24  Feb., 
1885,  decided  that  occupation  of  territory,  in  order  to  be  recognized,  must 
be  effective,  established  a  free  trade  zone,  and  required  the  suppression 
of  the  slave  trade  and  slaverj^  ;  another  result  of  the  Conference  was 
the  establishment  of  the  Congo  Free  State  under  the  sovereignty  of 
Leopold  II.  ;  rapid  progress  of  the  partition  of  Africa ;  the  Brussels 
Conference  (18  Nov.,  1889-2  July,  1890)  took  further  measures  to  sup- 
press the  slave  trade  and  regulated  the  sale  of  fire-arms  and  spirituous 
liquors  to  the  natives  ;  the  work  of  Stanley  (b.  1841). 

Bismarck,  the  dominant  force  in  European  politics  of  this  decade  ; 
effect  upon  his  position  of  the  deatli  of  the  Emperors  William  I.  and 
Frederick  ;  his  disagreement  with  the  Emperor  William  II. 

Attempts  to  form  a  Franco- Russian  Alliance  to  oppose  the  Triple  Al- 
liance of  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy. 

Dismissal  of  Bismarck  (17  Mar.,  1890)  ;  retrospect  of  his  twenty 
years'  dictatorship  over  Europe. 

Authorities :  The  events  described  in  this  lecture  are  too  recent  to  permit  of 
satisfactory  historical  treatment,  but  contemporary  accounts  of  all  the  events  may 
be  found  in  the  Annual  Register  and  in  Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia,  while 
general  accounts  are  to  be  found  in  Dilke,  Present  Position  of  European  Politics, 
published  in  1887,  and  in  Seignobos,  Histoire  politique  de  I'Europe  contemporaine 
(1814-96).  Reference  may  be  made  to  a  few  special  works,  such  as:  Daudet,  His- 
toire diplomatique  de  I'alliauce  Franco-Russe  (1873-1893);  Leroy-Beaulieu,  La 
France,  la  Russie,  et  I'Europe  ;  Lefebvre  de  BShaine,  Leon  XIII.  et  le  prince  de 
Bismarck  ;  Philippson,  Friedrich  IIL  als  Kronprinz  und  Kaiser ;  Rodd,  Frederick, 
Crown  Prince  and  Emperor ;  Morrison,  Russia  under  Alexander  III. ;  Lowe, 
Alexander  III.  of  Russia;  Krausse,  Russia  in  Asia;  Zevort,  Histoire  de  la  troisieme 
r^publique;  Lecomte,  Les  rallies,  histoire  d'un  parti,  1886-1898 ;  Stillman,  Fran- 
cesco Crispi ;  Smithy  Memoirs  of  Saldanha  ;  King  Charles  of  Romania,  Aus  dem 
Leben,  Aufzeichnungen  und  Augenzeugen  ;  Sergeant,  Greece  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century  ;  Berard,  La  Turquie  et  I'Hell^nisme  contemporaine  ;  Laveleye,  The  Bal- 
kan Peninsula  ;  Huhn,  The  Struggle  of  the  Bulgarians  for  National  Independence 
under  Prince  Alexander;  Milner,  England  in  Egypt ;  Traill,  Lord  Cromer ;  Hake, 
Journals  of  Gordon  at  Khartum ;   and  Keltie,  The  Partition  of  Africa. 


APPENDIX 


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Francisco  de  Mello. 
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Rodrigo. 
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Protestant 

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Muhammad  III. 
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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 

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AN    INITIAL     FINE     OF     25     CFMTq 

WILU  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 


6    )9o^ 


OCT  13  isj, 
"'^^   16  J933 


J^.a       >6t937 


^^C-^ 


LD  21-50w-8,.32 


LM^iii 


